Porphyric neuropathy

Guillain-Barré syndrome: A comprehensive review

Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is a potentially devastating yet treatable disorder. A classically postinfectious, immune-mediated, monophasic polyradiculoneuropathy, it is the leading global cause of acquired neuromuscular paralysis. In most cases, the immunopathological process driving nerve injury is ill-defined. Diagnosis of GBS relies on clinical features, supported by laboratory findings and electrophysiology. Although previously divided into primary demyelinating or axonal variants, this dichotomy is increasingly challenged, and is not endorsed by the recent European Academy of Neurology (EAN)/Peripheral Nerve Society (PNS) guidelines. Intravenous immunoglobulin and plasma exchange remain the primary modalities of treatment, regardless of the electrophysiological subtype. Most patients recover, but approximately one-third require mechanical ventilation, and 5% die. Disease activity and treatment response are currently monitored through interval neurological examination and outcome measures, and the potential role of fluid biomarkers is under ongoing scrutiny. Novel potential therapies for GBS are being explored but none have yet modified clinical practice. This review provides a comprehensive update on the pathological and clinical aspects of GBS for clinicians and scientists.

Peripheral nervous system and neuromuscular disorders in the emergency department: A review

INTRODUCTION

Acute presentations and emergencies in neuromuscular disorders (NMDs) often challenge clinical acumen. The objective of this review is to refine the reader's approach to history taking, clinical localization and early diagnosis, as well as emergency management of neuromuscular emergencies.

METHODS

An extensive literature search was performed to identify relevant studies. We prioritized meta-analysis, systematic reviews, and position statements where possible to inform any recommendations.

SUMMARY

The spectrum of clinical presentations and etiologies ranges from neurotoxic envenomation or infection to autoimmune disease such as Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS) and myasthenia gravis (MG). Delayed diagnosis is not uncommon when presentations occur "de novo," respiratory failure is dominant or isolated, or in the case of atypical scenarios such as GBS variants, severe autonomic dysfunction, or rhabdomyolysis. Diseases of the central nervous system, systemic and musculoskeletal disorders can mimic presentations in neuromuscular disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Fortunately, early diagnosis and management can improve prognosis. This article provides a comprehensive review of acute presentations in neuromuscular disorders relevant for the emergency physician.

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome in Guillain-Barre syndrome: a case report and literature review

BACKGROUND

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS) is characterized by transient constriction of cerebral arteries, leading to severe headache and potential complications. The association between RCVS and Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) is rare and poorly understood and warrants further investigation.

METHODS

A detailed case of RCVS in a patient with GBS was presented, followed by a comprehensive literature review. PubMed, Embase, and Google Scholar were searched for relevant cases and studies.

RESULTS

The case involved a 62-year-old woman with GBS who developed RCVS. The literature review identified three additional reported cases. RCVS in GBS primarily affected middle-aged women and presented with a variety of neurological symptoms. Neuroimaging showed reversible vasoconstriction in the cerebral arteries, along with other complications such as posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and infarcts. While the treatment for GBS consisted mainly of intravenous immunoglobulin, specific treatments for RCVS remain unclear.

CONCLUSIONS

The coexistence of RCVS and GBS is a rare occurrence. RCVS in GBS may result from the disruption of cerebral vascular tone regulation, possibly influenced by GBS-related dysautonomia and consequent high blood pressure. Recognizing RCVS in GBS patients is critical for appropriate management.

Mitochondrial DNA Copy Number Drives the Penetrance of Acute Intermittent Porphyria

No published study has investigated the mitochondrial count in patients suffering from acute intermittent porphyria (AIP). In order to determine whether mitochondrial content can influence the pathogenesis of porphyria, we measured the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy number in the peripheral blood cells of 34 patients and 37 healthy individuals. We found that all AIP patients had a low number of mitochondria, likely as a result of a protective mechanism against an inherited heme synthesis deficiency. Furthermore, we identified a close correlation between disease penetrance and decreases in the mitochondrial content and serum levels of PERM1, a marker of mitochondrial biogenesis. In a healthy individual, mitochondrial count is usually modulated to fit its ability to respond to various environmental stressors and bioenergetic demands. In AIP patients, coincidentally, the phenotype only manifests in response to endogenous and exogenous triggers factors. Therefore, these new findings suggest that a deficiency in mitochondrial proliferation could affect the individual responsiveness to stimuli, providing a new explanation for the variability in the clinical manifestations of porphyria. However, the metabolic and/or genetic factors responsible for this impairment remain to be identified. In conclusion, both mtDNA copy number per cell and mitochondrial biogenesis seem to play a role in either inhibiting or promoting disease expression. They could serve as two novel biomarkers for porphyria.

Acute Intermittent Porphyria: A Review and Rehabilitation Perspective

Acute intermittent porphyria (AIP) is an uncommon metabolic disease that impacts multiple organs and can manifest in many ways. It is often misdiagnosed due to its nonspecific symptoms. Neurovisceral signs and symptoms should alert physicians to consider AIP in the differential after excluding more common causes. Identifying the underlying cause is critical in preventing acute attacks, and trigger avoidance is the optimal approach to managing AIP. Medications that are contraindicated should be reviewed thoroughly. Prompt intravenous hematin administration is the primary treatment for acute attacks, and additional pharmacological therapies may be necessary to treat concurrent symptoms. A severe neurological manifestation of AIP is flaccid paralysis or severe motor weakness, which can develop into total quadriplegia and respiratory insufficiency. A comprehensive rehabilitation program is an integral aspect of the treatment plan. Since the incidence of this disease is low, functional prognosis is not well-known. As a result, it is challenging to determine the most appropriate structure, intensity, and duration of rehabilitation therapy. By extending the treatment plan, individuals with tetraplegia due to AIP can continue to make functional gains years after the onset of weakness. Understanding the disease's functional prognosis will aid in coordinating resources and improving healthcare expenditures.

Strategy for genetic analysis in hereditary neuropathy

Inherited neuropathies are a heterogeneous group of slowly progressive disorders affecting either motor, sensory, and/or autonomic nerves. Peripheral neuropathy may be the major component of a disease such as Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease or a feature of a more complex multisystemic disease involving the central nervous system and other organs. The goal of this review is to provide the clinical clues orientating the genetic diagnosis in a patient with inherited peripheral neuropathy. This review focuses on primary inherited neuropathies, amyloidosis, inherited metabolic diseases, while detailing clinical, neurophysiological and potential treatment of these diseases.

Pain in acute hepatic porphyrias: Updates on pathophysiology and management

Acute hepatic porphyrias (AHPs) typically present with recurrent acute attacks of severe abdominal pain and acute autonomic dysfunction. While chronic symptoms were historically overlooked in the literature, recent studies have reported increased prevalence of chronic, mainly neuropathic, pain between the attacks. Here we characterize acute and chronic pain as prominent manifestations of the AHPs and discuss their pathophysiology and updated management. In addition to the severe abdominal pain, patients could experience low back pain, limb pain, and headache during acute attacks. Chronic pain between the attacks is typically neuropathic and reported mainly by patients who undergo recurrent attacks. While the acute abdominal pain during attacks is likely mediated by autonomic neuropathy, chronic pain likely represents delayed recovery of the acute neuropathy with ongoing small fiber neuropathy in addition to peripheral and/or central sensitization. δ-aminolaevulinic acid (ALA) plays a major role in acute and chronic pain via its neurotoxic effect, especially where the blood-nerve barrier is less restrictive or absent i.e., the autonomic ganglia, nerve roots, and free nerve endings. For earlier diagnosis, we recommend testing a spot urine porphobilinogen (PBG) analysis in any patient with recurrent severe acute abdominal pain with no obvious explanation, especially if associated with neuropathic pain, hyponatremia, autonomic dysfunction, or encephalopathy. Of note, it is mandatory to exclude AHPs in any acute painful neuropathy. Between the attacks, diagnostic testing for AHPs should be considered for patients with a past medical history of acute/subacute neuropathy, frequent emergency room visits with abdominal pain, and behavioral changes. Pain during the attacks should be treated with opiates combined with hemin infusions. Symptomatic treatment of chronic pain should start with gabapentinoids and certain antidepressants before opiates. Givosiran reduces levels of ALA and PBG and likely has long-term benefits for chronic pain, especially if started early during the course of the disease.

Update on the diagnosis and management of the autosomal dominant acute hepatic porphyrias

The autosomal dominant acute hepatic porphyrias (AHPs), acute intermittent porphyria, hereditary coproporphyria (HCP) and variegate porphyria (VP), are low penetrance adult onset disorders caused by partial deficiency of enzymes of haem biosynthesis. All are associated with acute neurovisceral attacks, which are a consequence of the increased hepatic demand for haem triggered by hormones, stress, drugs or systemic infections which leads to upregulation of the pathway and overproduction of haem precursors 5-aminolaevulinic acid (ALA) and porphobilinogen (PBG). Acute episodes are characterised by severe abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, hyponatraemia, hypertension and tachycardia, behavioural disturbance and can progress to include seizures, peripheral motor neuropathy and posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome if undiagnosed and untreated. VP and HCP may also present with photocutaneous skin lesions either alone or during acute symptoms. Diagnosis involves demonstrating increased excretion of PBG in urine. Treatment focuses on removing or managing triggers, supportive treatment and suppressing the hepatic haem pathway by administering human haemin. Chronic complications include hypertension, chronic kidney disease and hepatocellular carcinoma. A small proportion of symptomatic patients with AHP progress to repeated acute attacks which require preventative therapy. A new RNA interference therapy has recently been licensed and is likely to become the treatment of choice in this situation.

Long-term follow-up of acute porphyria in female patients: Update of clinical outcome and life expectancy

Background

Acute hepatic porphyria includes four inherited disorders caused by partial deficiencies of enzymes related to the heme biosynthesis. Clinical manifestations include acute attacks, occurring mainly among female patients. This study describes the diversity of acute symptoms, changes in triggering factors and life expectancy among female patients during the past five decades.

Methods

107 Finnish female patients were enrolled into a retrospective, longitudinal study during 2015. Clinical, biochemical and genetic data was obtained from the medical reports, registry data and a questionnaire designed for the study. Causes of death were studied in additional 32 female patients.

Results

Of the 43 patients with hospitalization, 33% had non-complicated, 35% prolonged and 28% severe attacks with no correlation with the disease-causing mutation. Of the deceased patients, 31% died of an acute attack during 1957–1979. Thereafter the incidence and severity of acute attacks have decreased substantially. 55% of the subjects reported acute symptoms (dysautonomia and mental symptoms) without hospitalization, 29% had porphyria symptoms >10 times, and 23% within the last year. Despite 22% of the female patients had died of primary liver cancer, the life expectancy increased more than 10 years during the follow-up, and did not differ from the normal population at present.

Conclusions

The incidence of acute attacks requiring hospitalization has decreased, but more than half of the female patients reported acute symptoms affecting their well-being. Symptoms are currently triggered by hormonal changes and weight loss emphasizing the importance of early recognition and active management to avoid disease exacerbation. Death due to primary liver cancer is common and should be screened regularly.