Naltrexone/bupropion for binge-eating disorder: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Efficacy of opioid antagonist in patients with binge eating behavior: A systemic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Binge eating (BE) involves consuming unusually large amounts of food within a short period and feeling a loss of control. Neurobiological mechanisms underlying BE involve dysregulation of reward and inhibitory control systems, with the endogenous opioid system playing a key role. Opioid antagonists and the combination therapies with bupropion may have potential to reduce BE by affecting the reward system, but evidence regarding their effectiveness remains inconclusive. This meta-analysis reviewed randomized controlled trials (RCTs) exploring the effects of opioid antagonists on BE frequency, BE severity, body weight, and mood.

METHODS

We systematically searched PubMed, Embase, Cochrane CENTRAL, Web of Science, and ClinicalTrials.gov to identify RCTs published before May 14, 2023,. The primary outcomes were BE severity and frequency. The secondary outcomes were percentage change in body weight and depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

Eight RCTs were included in our analysis. Opioid antagonists significantly reduced BE frequency (standard difference in means [SMD] = -0.624, 95 % confidence interval [CI] = -1.181 to -0.067, p = 0.028) and changes in body weight percentage (SMD = -0.981, 95 % CI = -1.657 to -0.305, p = 0.004), with a moderate-to-large effect size. Conversely, opioid antagonists didn't significantly improve BE severity (Hedges' g = -0.210, 95 % CI = -0.431 to 0.011, p = 0.063) or depressive symptoms (Hedges' g = -0.190, 95 % CI = -0.434 to 0.053, p = 0.125). Meta-regression analysis revealed that the dosage of naltrexone served as a moderator in reducing BE frequency and body weight percentage.

CONCLUSION

The present meta-analysis indicated that opioid antagonists effectively alleviate BE frequency and reduce percentage loss in body weight.

Endogenous opioid receptors and the feast or famine of maladaptive feeding

Maladaptive feeding comprises unhealthy eating patterns that jeopardize survival, including over- and underconsumption. These behaviors are often coordinated by endogenous opioid receptors (EORs). Here, we explore the involvement of EORs in obesity and anorexia nervosa (AN), two disorders associated with dysregulated feeding behavior and relevant animal models. While seemingly opposing metabo-psychiatric states, our goal is to highlight common circuit and synaptic mechanisms underlying obesity and AN with a focus on EOR functionality. We examine the neural substrates underlying maladaptive feeding and comorbid conditions including pain, suggesting a role for EOR-driven plasticity in the pathogenesis of both obesity and AN.

Recent advances and prospects of nanoparticle-based drug delivery for diabetic ocular complications

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder that significantly affects various organ systems. The systemic effects of DM lead to numerous complications, with ocular manifestations being of particular concern due to their severity and impact on quality of life. Hyperglycemia-induced ocular damage often results in a range of lesions, including diabetic retinopathy (DR), keratopathy, cataracts, and glaucoma. These conditions impose considerable physical discomfort on patients and place a substantial economic burden on healthcare systems. The advent of nanotechnology has facilitated the development of innovative therapeutic strategies for managing diabetic ocular complications. This review highlights several common ocular complications associated with DM, focusing on their pathogenesis and treatment strategies. Emphasis is placed on the innovative applications and potential of nanotechnology in treating diabetic ocular complications.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Lisdexamfetamine, Alone and Combined, for Binge-Eating Disorder With Obesity: A Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

Binge-eating disorder (BED) is a prevalent, costly public health problem associated with serious functional impairments and heightened rates of psychiatric and medical comorbidities. Few evidence-based treatments are currently available for BED. We tested the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), lisdexamfetamine (LDX), and combined CBT+LDX, for BED comorbid with obesity.

METHODS

Randomized controlled trial was conducted March 2019 to September 2023 at a single site. N=141 patients with BED (83.7% women, mean age 43.6, mean BMI 38.6 kg/m2) were randomized to one of three 12-week treatments: CBT (N=47), LDX (N=47), or CBT+LDX (N=47); 87.2% completed independent posttreatment assessments.

RESULTS

Mixed models revealed binge-eating frequency decreased significantly in all treatments, with CBT+LDX having the largest reduction and significantly outperforming CBT and LDX, which did not differ. Intention-to-treat binge-eating remission rates differed significantly between treatments, with CBT+LDX having the highest remission rate (70.2%) followed by CBT (44.7%) and LDX (40.4%). Mixed models revealed percent weight loss increased significantly throughout treatment with LDX and CBT+LDX but remained unchanged in CBT. LDX and CBT+LDX had significantly greater percent weight loss than CBT starting after one month and through posttreatment. Intention-to-treat rates of attaining ≥5% weight loss differed across treatments, with LDX having the highest (53.2%), followed by CBT+LDX (42.6%) and CBT (4.3%). Analyses revealed significant reductions in eating-disorder psychopathology; CBT+LDX had largest reductions and significantly outperformed CBT and LDX.

CONCLUSIONS

CBT, LDX, and CBT+LDX showed significant improvements in BED, with a consistent pattern of the combined CBT+LDX being superior to the two individual treatments, which differed little.

Antidepressants and Weight Gain: An Update on the Evidence and Clinical Implications

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To highlight recent research on antidepressant use and weight change and explore best clinical practices for reducing weight gain and obesity risk in individuals with depression.

RECENT FINDINGS

Research on antidepressant use and weight gain suggests that genetic and biological factors including metabolizer phenotypes and inflammation can help to predict an individual's threshold for weight change among specific agents. For individuals with increased susceptibility to metabolic complications, medications including bupropion, fluoxetine, and newer agents (e.g., gepirone) have shown to be efficacious in improving depressive symptoms while concurrently reducing metabolic risks. Additional areas of focus following antidepressant related weight gain include switching to a weight neutral drug alternative, integrated behavioral interventions, and/or pharmacotherapy including GLP-1 receptor agonists (e.g., metformin, liraglutide). Individuals experiencing depression are at heightened risk of metabolic disorders and weight gain, which may be further exacerbated by antidepressant treatment. The increased support of weight neutral antidepressant agents in addition to innovative lifestyle interventions, breakthroughs in drug mechanisms, anti-obesity medications and overall familiarity with the side effects of each antidepressant class will help clinicians make appropriate decisions when treating patients with depression.

Editorial: Biological Therapies and Eating Disorders

OBJECTIVE

Blood-based biomarkers and neuroimaging techniques have improved our understanding of the underlying biology of eating disorders (EDs) and have increased our diagnostic portfolio.

METHOD

This editorial accompanies an article collection on novel biological approaches to treat EDs.

RESULTS

The collection covers intermittent theta burst stimulation, therapeutic drug monitoring, pharmacological treatments (olanzapine, metreleptin, psychedelics, and anti-inflammatory medications), microbiome-based treatments such as pro- and prebiotics, as well as individually tailored treatment approaches for EDs.

DISCUSSION

Research of brain areas and bodily systems that are related to memory, emotions and immune function will hopefully expand the biological treatment options for people with EDs.

Reward and Inhibitory Control as Mechanisms and Treatment Targets for Binge Eating Disorder

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Recent research has highlighted alterations in reward and inhibitory control among individuals with binge eating disorder, identifying both constructs as potential targets for treatment. Treatments targeting reward and inhibitory control for binge eating disorder are emerging. This review aims to summarize the recent literature evaluating reward and inhibitory control in binge eating disorder compared to weight-matched controls using behavioral paradigms and neuroimaging. This review also aims to summarize recent literature evaluating treatments for binge eating targeting these mechanisms and highlights additional work needed in these areas.

RECENT FINDINGS

Reward hypersensitivity and impaired inhibitory control are mechanisms underlying binge eating disorder. Individuals with binge eating disorder experience higher initial reward to food, and later, higher anticipatory reward but lower experienced food reward which maintains binge eating behavior. Treatments targeting reward and inhibitory control for binge eating include behavioral, computerized trainings, pharmacological, and neuromodulation treatments. The majority of trials are small but demonstrate promise in reducing binge eating and targeting theorized mechanisms. Larger, randomized trials are needed. Changes in reward and inhibitory control are present in individuals with binge eating disorder and treatments targeting these mechanisms demonstrate initial promise. Greater research is needed evaluating reward and inhibitory control simultaneously and with weight-matched comparison groups, as well as larger randomized trials that target both processes simultaneously.

Pharmacological Treatment of Binge Eating Disorder and Frequent Comorbid Diseases

Binge eating disorder (BED) is the most common specific eating disorder (ED). It is frequently associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), depression, bipolar disorder (BD), anxiety disorders, alcohol and nicotine use disorder, and obesity. The aim of this narrative review was to summarize the evidence for the pharmacological treatment of BED and its comorbid disorders. We recommend the ADHD medication lisdexamfetamine (LDX) and the antiepileptic and antimigraine drug topiramate for the pharmacological treatment of BED. However, only LDX is approved for the treatment of BED in some countries. Medications to treat diseases frequently comorbid with BED include atomoxetine and LDX for ADHD; citalopram, fluoxetine, sertraline, duloxetine, and venlafaxine for anxiety disorders and depression; aripiprazole for manic episodes of BD; lamotrigine, lirasidone and lumateperone for depressive episodes of BD; naltrexone for alcohol use disorder; bupropion for nicotine use disorder; and liraglutide, semaglutide, and the combination of bupropion and naltrexone for obesity. As obesity is a frequent health consequence of BED, weight gain-inducing medications, such as the atypical antipsychotics olanzapine or clozapine, the novel antidepressant mirtazapine and tricyclic antidepressants, and the mood stabilizer valproate should be avoided where possible. It is currently unclear whether the novel and promising glucagon, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), and glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists like tirzepatide and retatrutide help with BED and its comorbidities. However, these compounds have been reported to reduce binge eating in individuals with obesity or overweight.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2023

This paper is the forty-sixth consecutive installment of the annual anthological review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system, summarizing articles published during 2023 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides and receptors as well as effects of opioid/opiate agonists and antagonists. The review is subdivided into the following specific topics: molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors (1), the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia in animals (2) and humans (3), opioid-sensitive and opioid-insensitive effects of nonopioid analgesics (4), opioid peptide and receptor involvement in tolerance and dependence (5), stress and social status (6), learning and memory (7), eating and drinking (8), drug and alcohol abuse (9), sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (10), mental illness and mood (11), seizures and neurologic disorders (12), electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (13), general activity and locomotion (14), gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (15), cardiovascular responses (16), respiration and thermoregulation (17), and immunological responses (18).

Treatment of Eating Disorders: Current Status, Challenges, and Future Directions

Specific psychological treatments have demonstrated efficacy and represent the first-line approaches recommended for anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder. Unfortunately, many patients, particularly those with anorexia nervosa, do not derive sufficient benefit from existing treatments, and better or alternative treatments for eating disorders are needed. Less progress has been made in developing pharmacologic options for eating disorders. No medications approved for anorexia nervosa exist, and only one each exists for bulimia nervosa and for binge-eating disorder; available data indicate that most patients fail to benefit from available medications. Longer and combined treatments have generally not enhanced outcomes. This review presents emerging findings from more complex and clinically relevant adaptive treatment designs, as they offer some clinical guidance and may serve as models for future enhanced treatment research.

Psychopharmacology Review for Eating Disorders Among Children, Adolescents, and Adults

This article reviews the latest research on pharmacological management of eating disorders, including anorexia nervosa (AN), bulimia nervosa (BN), binge-eating disorder (BED), and avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder. Recent literature for both youth and adult populations obtained through a PubMed search was included. American Psychiatric Association guidelines, National Institute for Health and Care Excellence guidelines, Canadian practice guidelines, and World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry guidelines were also included. First-line recommendations were focused on therapy because the evidence for medication management of eating disorders continues to be limited. Some limited evidence was found for antipsychotic use for AN, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and topiramate use for BN, and stimulant and topiramate use for BED. Further medication trials are needed to help with complex eating disorder presentations in adults and youth.

Antidepressants compared to placebo for people with binge eating disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Binge eating disorder (BED) is the most prevalent eating disorder. Treatment options include pharmacotherapy as well as psychotherapy, with the latter recommended as a first-line option. However, the use of psychotherapeutic interventions poses several challenges. Antidepressants are easily accessible, but they lack robust evidence-base. This systematic review aims to comprehensively examine the efficacy and safety of antidepressants for the treatment of BED. Five databases were searched for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) comparing antidepressants vs. placebo in BED until 23/11/2023. Pairwise meta-analytic evaluations were performed. The primary outcomes were remission and binge eating frequency. Secondary outcomes were response to treatment, eating psychopathology, depression, anxiety, body weight, Body Mass Index (BMI), all-cause discontinuation, discontinuation due to adverse effects and total adverse events. Sixteen RCTs with a total of 984 participants were meta-analysed. Antidepressants were more effective than placebo in achieving remission (RR: 1.39, 95 % CI: 1.04 to 1.86) and in reducing binge eating episodes (SMD: -0.29, 95 % CI: -0.51 to -0.06). Similarly, in the secondary outcomes of response and depression, antidepressants demonstrated superiority over placebo. Antidepressants appear to be effective in reducing symptoms of BED. Small samples and effect sizes hinder the generalizability and clinical utility of these results. There is a lack of follow-up findings regarding the maintenance of effects. There is a pressing need for more RCTs examining antidepressants and other types of pharmacotherapy. Future research should include larger number of participants and increase the duration of follow-up.

Overview of Psychiatric Medications in the Pipeline in Phase III Trials as of June 1, 2024: A Systematic Review

Objective

This systematic review provides an overview of psychiatric medications in the late stages of development (Phase III clinical trials) as of June 1, 2024. It details the mechanisms of action, efficacy, dosing, and adverse effects of these medications.

Methods

We searched the PubMed database for Phase III studies of psychiatric medications published until June 1, 2024, using the keywords "psychiatric" OR "psychopharm*" AND "medic*" OR "pharm*". Our review encompassed medications currently undergoing Phase III clinical trials and those that have completed Phase III but are awaiting approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA). We independently analyzed the identified studies and reached a consensus on the medications to be included in this systematic review.

Results

As of June 1, 2024, a total of 89 pipeline drug trials were identified, including nine for schizophrenia, five for bipolar disorders, 25 for depressive disorders, 11 for anxiety disorders, five for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), one for obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), two for eating disorders, two for sleep-wake disorders, three for sexual dysfunctions, one for substance-related and addictive disorders, 22 for neurocognitive disorders, and three for neurodevelopmental disorders, specifically attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

Conclusion

The psychiatric medications in the pipeline as of June 1, 2024, demonstrate significant promise in treating psychiatric disorders.

Sex, race, and BMI in clinical trials of medications for obesity over the past three decades: a systematic review

Medications for obesity have been studied in various populations over the past three decades. We aimed to quantify the baseline demographic characteristics of BMI, sex, age, and race in randomised clinical trials (RCTs) across three decades to establish whether the population studied is representative of the global population affected by the disease. Clinical trials of 12 medications for obesity (ie, orlistat, naltrexone-bupropion, topiramate-phentermine, liraglutide, semaglutide, lorcaserin, sibutramine, rimonabant, taranabant, tirzepatide, retatrutide, and orforglipron) published from Jan 20, 1999, to Nov 12, 2023, were assessed through a systematic review for methodological quality and baseline demographic characteristics. 246 RCTs were included, involving 139 566 participants with or without type 2 diabetes. Most trials over-recruited White, female participants aged 40 years or older with class 1 (30·0-34·9 kg/m2) and class 2 (35·0-39·9 kg/m2) obesity; older participants, those with class 3 (≥40·0 kg/m2) obesity, non-White participants, and male participants were under-recruited. Our systematic review suggests that future trials need to recruit traditionally under-represented populations to allow for accurate measures of efficacy of medications for obesity, enabling more informed decisions by clinicians. It is also hoped that these data will help to refine trial recruitment strategies to ensure that future studies are relevant to the population affected by obesity.

Anti-obesity Drugs for the Treatment of Binge Eating Disorder: Opportunities and Challenges

Binge eating disorder (BED) is the most prevalent form of disordered eating, frequently associated with obesity. Both these conditions along with sharing overeating behaviour features can lead to substantial burden of disease and premature mortality. With limited specific evidence available on pharmacotherapy, since lisdexamfetamine is approved only in some countries, new drugs are urgently needed to provide physicians with efficacious prescribing choices when treating BED. Although unique mechanisms underlie psychopathological features of binge eating, including impulsivity, compulsivity, and emotional reactivity, anti-obesity drugs might represent an option for both weight management and symptom reduction in people with BED. The aim of this review is thus to provide a summary of available evidence on the efficacy of anti-obesity drugs for BED. After comprehensively searching for relevant studies in PubMed and the Cochrane Library, as well as for unpublished results in ClinicalTrials.gov, we included 14 clinical trials. Despite the limited sample size and the methodological variability, evidence from available studies suggests that most anti-obesity drugs, namely phentermine/topiramate, naltrexone/bupropion, liraglutide and semaglutide, though not orlistat, might variously achieve improvements for both body weight and severity and frequency of binge episodes. Findings from ongoing clinical trials are likely to provide further insight into the possible role of anti-obesity drugs for treating BED. Since these agents can hold the potential to be misused potentiating dietary restriction and pathological weight loss, it is crucial to promote responsible prescribing practices.

Female obesity: clinical and psychological assessment toward the best treatment

Obesity is a heterogeneous condition which results from complex interactions among sex/gender, sociocultural, environmental, and biological factors. Obesity is more prevalent in women in most developed countries, and several clinical and psychological obesity complications show sex-specific patterns. Females differ regarding fat distribution, with males tending to store more visceral fat, which is highly correlated to increased cardiovascular risk. Although women are more likely to be diagnosed with obesity and appear more motivated to lose weight, as confirmed by their greater representation in clinical trials, males show better outcomes in terms of body weight and intra-abdominal fat loss and improvements in the metabolic risk profile. However, only a few relatively recent studies have investigated gender differences in obesity, and sex/gender is rarely considered in the assessment and management of the disease. This review summarizes the evidence of gender differences in obesity prevalence, contributing factors, clinical complications, and psychological challenges. In addition, we explored gender differences in response to obesity treatments in the specific context of new anti-obesity drugs.

Food Cravings and Obesity in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: Pathophysiological and Therapeutic Considerations

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), the most common endocrine disorder in women of reproductive age, constitutes a metabolic disorder frequently associated with obesity and insulin resistance (IR). Furthermore, women with PCOS often suffer from excessive anxiety and depression, elicited by low self-esteem due to obesity, acne, and hirsutism. These mood disorders are commonly associated with food cravings and binge eating. Hypothalamic signaling regulates appetite and satiety, deteriorating excessive food consumption. However, the hypothalamic function is incapable of compensating for surplus food in women with PCOS, leading to the aggravation of obesity and a vicious circle. Hyperandrogenism, IR, the reduced secretion of cholecystokinin postprandially, and leptin resistance defined by leptin receptors' knockout in the hypothalamus have been implicated in the pathogenesis of hypothalamic dysfunction and appetite dysregulation. Diet modifications, exercise, and psychological and medical interventions have been applied to alleviate food disorders, interrupting the vicious circle. Cognitive-behavioral intervention seems to be the mainstay of treatment, while the role of medical agents, such as GLP-1 analogs and naltrexone/bupropion, has emerged.

Acquired hypothalamic obesity: A clinical overview and update

Hypothalamic obesity (HO) is a rare and complex disorder that confers substantial morbidity and excess mortality. HO is a unique subtype of obesity characterized by impairment in the key brain pathways that regulate energy intake and expenditure, autonomic nervous system function, and peripheral hormonal signalling. HO often occurs in the context of hypothalamic syndrome, a constellation of symptoms that follow from disruption of hypothalamic functions, for example, temperature regulation, sleep-wake circadian control, and energy balance. Genetic forms of HO, including the monogenic obesity syndromes, often impact central leptin-melanocortin pathways. Acquired forms of HO occur as a result of tumours impacting the hypothalamus, such as craniopharyngioma, surgery or radiation to treat those tumours, or other forms of hypothalamic damage, such as brain injury impacting the region. Risk for severe obesity following hypothalamic injury is increased with larger extent of hypothalamic damage or lesions that contain the medial and posterior hypothalamic nuclei that support melanocortin signalling pathways. Structural damage in these hypothalamic nuclei often leads to hyperphagia, central insulin and leptin resistance, decreased sympathetic activity, low energy expenditure, and increased energy storage in adipose tissue, the collective effect of which is rapid weight gain. Individuals with hyperphagia are perpetually hungry. They do not experience fullness at the end of a meal, nor do they feel satiated after meals, leading them to consume larger and more frequent meals. To date, most efforts to treat HO have been disappointing and met with limited, if any, long-term success. However, new treatments based on the distinct pathophysiology of disturbed energy homeostasis in acquired HO may hold promise for the future.

Physiopathology and Treatment of Obesity and Overweight: A Proposal for a New Anorectic

The "new epidemic," as WHO calls obesity, is caused by overeating, which, having exceeded the body's actual needs, accumulates in the form of health-damaging fat deposits. Moving more and eating less is the main remedy, but eating belongs to vital instincts, which are beyond the control of reason. In this sense, eating is different from drinking and breathing because without food it is possible to survive for a few weeks, without water for a few days, without oxygen for a few minutes. The first part of this article provides an overview of obesity and its treatment, focusing on the new anorectic anticipated in the title. The second part focuses on compulsive obesity, typically represented by constitutional obesity and food addiction. The article concludes with a discussion of the pharmacological treatment of compulsive diseases, to which some forms of obesity belong.

The children of parents who receive treatment for binge-eating disorder experience improvements in disordered eating

OBJECTIVE

Parental eating disorders are associated with disordered eating behaviors and psychopathology in their children, but it is not known whether parent treatment for binge-eating disorder (BED) is associated with changes in child disordered eating behaviors and weight. Benefits or the "ripple" effect of treatment on untreated family members has been described in the obesity literature but not for BED.

METHOD

Participants evaluated for two randomized clinical trials for BED were screened for whether they had children. 76 parents completed baseline assessments about a school-aged child; 62 were randomized to treatment, of whom 41 completed end-of-treatment assessments about their child's eating behaviors and weight (which were not targeted in the parent treatments).

RESULTS

Analyses revealed a significant effect of time on children's binge-eating frequency and perceived weight category and a significant effect of parent medication on perceived weight category. Parental change in binge eating was associated significantly with changes in child secretive eating and food hoarding. Parental change in weight was not associated significantly with change in age/sex-normed child BMI percentile, but had some associations with parent-perceived child weight category.

CONCLUSIONS

Parent changes during their treatment were associated with changes in their children. Future longitudinal research is needed to examine when disordered eating emerges and clarify critical intervention timing related to children's age and parental BED. Further clinical research is also needed to assess the effectiveness of treating disordered eating at the family level.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

Prior cross-sectional work has found that parents with BED are more likely to have children who engage in binge eating compared to parents without eating-disorder psychopathology. This study was an initial exploration of change in children when parents received treatment in randomized controlled trials for BED. In this study, parent changes in binge eating were associated with reduced child secretive eating and food hoarding.

Potential therapies for obesity management: Exploring novel frontiers

Humans are becoming less active in the current age of technological advancement, which leads to poor health. Many factors, including unregulated diet, lack of exercise, environmental pollution and genetic factors are contributing to an increase in overweight. Obesity is a chronic condition that disturbs the physical health of a person, resulting in various other complications including cardiac, respiratory, and psychosocial issues. According to WHO, the current trend of obesity has shown a sharp increase in recent years. Methods ranging from as simple as regulating the diet to as complex as surgery are available. There are many approved drugs to treat the obesity majority of them works as suppressing the appetite and making the patient satisfy. Some of other agents works by insulinotropic activity. However, these agents need to be taken for longer period of time thus are associated with significant adverse drug reactions. Thus, the motive of this study is to understand obesity and the various methods available to manage it using the recent pharmacological and non-pharmacological approaches.

Screening, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Patients with Binge Eating Disorder and Obesity: What the Endocrinologist Needs to Know

Binge eating disorder (BED) is the most common eating disorder categorized in the DSM-V, but it is often not diagnosed in patients with obesity because it can be difficult to detect in these patients who often have altered eating patterns. In this narrative review, we have highlighted the most recent findings in the screening, diagnosis, and treatment of patients with BED and obesity. The results of our search showed that many BED patients are not obese, and most people with obesity do not have binge behavior. In the diagnostic assessment of these patients, it is important to evaluate not only the clinical and nutritional status and the presence of medical comorbidities, but also the psychological signs and symptoms related to psychiatric comorbidities to define the appropriate diagnosis and the consequent level of treatment. Well-tolerated drugs with action on both body weight and binges can be useful as a second-line complement to cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). Specific guidelines are needed to obtain consensus on appropriate recommendations in patients with obesity and BED approaching bariatric surgery, taking into account not only weight reduction and clinical data, but also eating behaviors. Identification of BED is important for targeting individuals at high risk of obesity, adverse metabolic patterns, and cardiovascular disease. The challenge is to also achieve lasting weight loss in patients with BED and concomitant obesity.