Aqueous enzymatic extraction of rosmarinic acid from Salvia officinalis: optimisation using response surface methodology

Optimisation of enzyme-assisted extraction of camptothecin from Nothapodytes nimmoniana and its characterisation

INTRODUCTION

Efficient extraction of camptothecin (CPT), an anticancer agent from the commercial source Nothapodytes nimmoniana (J. Graham) Mabb in India, is of paramount importance. CPT is present in the highest concentration in the stem portion, and the stem can be readily harvested without uprooting the plant. The fluorescence microscopy mapping of the bark matrix for CPT revealed its presence in a free form within both the outer (epidermal and cortical tissues) and inner (xylem and phloem tissues) sections. The bark matrix primarily consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, rendering it woody, rigid, and resistant to efficient solvent penetration for CPT extraction. We proposed a hypothesis that subjecting it to disruption through treatment with hydrolytic enzymes like cellulase and xylanase could enhance solvent diffusion, thereby enabling a swift and effective extraction of CPT.

OBJECTIVE

The present study was aimed at enzyme-assisted extraction, using cellulase and xylanase for hydrolytic disruption of the cells to readily access CPT from the stem of the plant N. nimmoniana (J. Graham) Mabb.

METHODOLOGY

The hydrolytic cell disruption of ground powder from the stem bark was studied using cellulase and xylanase enzymes. The enzymatically pretreated stem bark powder was subsequently recovered by filtration, dried, and subjected to extraction with methanol to isolate CPT. This process was optimised through a Box-Behnken design, employing a one-factor-at-a-time approach to assess parameters such as enzyme concentration (2-10% w/w), pH (3-7), incubation time (6-24 h), and solid-to-solvent ratio (1:30-1:70 g/mL). CPT was characterised using proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra, and a high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method was developed for quantification.

RESULTS

The cellulase and xylanase treatment resulted in the highest yields of 0.285% w/w and 0.343% w/w, with efficiencies of 67% and 81%, respectively, achieved in a significantly shorter time compared to the untreated material, which yielded 0.18% with an efficiency of only 42%. Extraction by utilising the predicted optimised process parameters, a nearly two-fold increase in the yield, was observed for xylanase, with incubation and solvent extraction times set at 16 and 2 h, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the spent material indicated perforations attributed to enzymatic action, suggesting that this could be a primary factor contributing to the enhanced extraction.

CONCLUSION

Enzyme-mediated hydrolytic cell disruption could be a potential approach for efficient and rapid isolation of CPT from the bark of N. nimmoniana.

Optimizing an Enzymatic Extraction Method for the Flavonoids in Moringa (Moringa oleifera Lam.) Leaves Based on Experimental Designs Methodologies

Moringa oleifera Lam. is known to have significant antioxidant properties. Because of this, the development of an optimal extraction method is crucial to obtain pharmacological products based on the bioactive compounds produced by this tree. Through a Plackett-Burman and a Box-Behnken design, enzymatic extraction conditions (temperature, agitation, solvent pH and composition, sample-to-solvent ratio, enzyme-to-sample ratio and extraction time) have been optimized using normalized areas (UA/g) as response variable and relative mass (mg/g) as quantification variable. Extractions were performed in an incubator, where all the extraction conditions could be digitally controlled. Thus, 58.9 °C, 50 rpm, 4.0 pH, 32.5% EtOH, 0.2 g sample in 15 mL solvent and 106 U/g were established as the optimal extraction conditions for the extraction with a mix of pectinases coming from Aspergillus niger. Under these optimal conditions, two-minute extractions were performed and evaluated through a single factor design. The enzymatic extraction method demonstrated its suitability to produce extracts with good antioxidant power (antioxidant activity 4.664 ± 0.059 mg trolox equivalent/g sample and total phenolic compounds 6.245 ± 0.101 mg gallic acid equivalent/g sample). The method was also confirmed to have good repeatability (1.39%) and intermediate precision (2.37%) levels.

Journey of Rosmarinic Acid as Biomedicine to Nano-Biomedicine for Treating Cancer: Current Strategies and Future Perspectives

Rosmarinic acid (RA) is a polyphenolic metabolite found in various culinary, dietary sources, and medicinal plants like Coleus scutellarioides (Linn) Benth., Lavandula angustifolia Linn., Mellisa officinalis Linn., Origanum vulgare Linn., Rosmarinus officinalis Linn., Zataria multiflora Boiss. and Zhumeria majdae Rech. F. Apart from its dietary and therapeutic values, RA is an important anticancer phytochemical owing to its multi-targeting anticancer mechanism. These properties provide a scope for RA's therapeutic uses beyond its traditional use as a dietary source. However, its oral bioavailability is limited due to its poor solubility and permeability. This impedes its efficacy in treating cancer. Indeed, in recent years, tremendous efforts have been put towards the development of nanoformulations of RA for treating cancer. However, this research is in its initial stage as bringing a nanoparticle into the market itself is associated with many issues such as stability, toxicity, and scale-up issues. Considering these pitfalls during formulation development and overcoming them would surely provide a new face to RA as a nanomedicine to treat cancer. A literature search was conducted to systematically review the various biological sources, extraction techniques, and anticancer mechanisms through which RA showed multiple therapeutic effects. Various nanocarriers of RA pertaining to its anticancer activity are also discussed in this review.

Rosmarinic Acid and Related Dietary Supplements: Potential Applications in the Prevention and Treatment of Cancer

Cancer constitutes a severe threat to human health and quality of life and is one of the most significant causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Natural dietary products have drawn substantial attention in cancer treatment and prevention due to their availability and absence of toxicity. Rosmarinic acid (RA) is known for its excellent antioxidant properties and is safe and effective in preventing and inhibiting tumors. This review summarizes recent publications on culture techniques, extraction processes, and anti-tumor applications of RA-enriched dietary supplements. We discuss techniques to improve RA bioavailability and provide a mechanistic discussion of RA regarding tumor prevention, treatment, and adjuvant therapy. RA exhibits anticancer activity by regulating oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, cell cycle, apoptosis, and metastasis. These data suggest that daily use of RA-enriched dietary supplements can contribute to tumor prevention and treatment. RA has the potential for application in anti-tumor drug development.

Plant polyphenols regulating myoglobin oxidation and color stability in red meat and certain fish: A review

Color is an essential criterion for assessing the freshness, quality, and acceptability of red meat and certain fish with red muscle. Myoglobin (Mb), one of the significant pigment substances, is the uppermost reason to keep the color of red meat. Their oxidation and browning are easy to occur throughout the storage and processing period. Natural antioxidants are substances with antioxidant activity extracted from plants, such as plant polyphenols. Consumers prefer natural antioxidants due to safety concerns and limitations on the use of synthetic antioxidants. In recent years, plant polyphenols have been widely used as antioxidants to slow down the deterioration of product quality due to oxidation. As natural antioxidants, it is necessary to strengthen the researches on the antioxidant mechanism of plant polyphenols to solve the discoloration of red meat and certain fish. A fundamental review of the relationship between Mb oxidation and color stability is discussed. The inhibiting mechanisms of polyphenols on lipid and Mb oxidation are presented and investigated. Meanwhile, this review comprehensively outlines applications of plant polyphenols in improving color stability. This will provide reference and theoretical support for the rational application of plant polyphenols in green meat processing.

Biological Approaches for Extraction of Bioactive Compounds From Agro-industrial By-products: A Review

Bioactive compounds can provide health benefits beyond the nutritional value and are originally present or added to food matrices. However, because they are part of the food matrices, most bioactive compounds remain in agroindustrial by-products. Agro-industrial by-products are generated in large quantities throughout the food production chain and can—when not properly treated—affect the environment, the profit, and the proper and nutritional distribution of food to people. Thus, it is important to adopt processes that increase the use of these agroindustrial by-products, including biological approaches, which can enhance the extraction and obtention of bioactive compounds, which enables their application in food and pharmaceutical industries. Biological processes have several advantages compared to nonbiological processes, including the provision of extracts with high quality and bioactivity, as well as extracts that present low toxicity and environmental impact. Among biological approaches, extraction from enzymes and fermentation stand out as tools for obtaining bioactive compounds from various agro-industrial wastes. In this sense, this article provides an overview of the main bioactive components found in agroindustrial by-products and the biological strategies for their extraction. We also provide information to enhance the use of these bioactive compounds, especially for the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Aqueous enzymatic extraction of peanut oil body and protein and evaluation of its physicochemical and functional properties

Aqueous enzymatic extraction (AEE) is a new technology for extracting vegetable oil body which has the advantages of low energy consumption, product safety, mild reaction conditions, and simultaneous separation of oil and protein. Among the enzymes tested in the present work, Viscozyme L (compound plant hydrolase) exhibited the highest extraction activity during peanut oil extraction. Extraction was optimized using response surface methodology, and optimal conditions were enzymatic temperature 51.5 °C, material-to-liquid ratio 1:3.5, enzymatic concentration 1.5%, and enzymatic time 90 min, yielding total oil body and protein of 93.67 ± 0.59% and 76.84 ± 0.68%, respectively. The fatty acid composition and content, and various quality indicators were not significantly different from those of cold-pressed oil, hence peanut oil produced by AEE met the same standards as cold-pressed first-grade peanut oil. Additionally, the functional properties of peanut protein produced by AEE were superior to those of commercially available peanut protein.

Current Status of Mining, Modification, and Application of Cellulases in Bioactive Substance Extraction

Cellulases have been used to extract bioactive ingredients from medical plants; however, the poor enzymatic properties of current cellulases significantly limit their application. Two strategies are expected to address this concern: (1) new cellulase gene mining strategies have been promoted, optimized, and integrated, thanks to the improvement of gene sequencing, genomic data, and algorithm optimization, and (2) known cellulases are being modified, thanks to the development of protein engineering, crystal structure data, and computing power. Here, we focus on mining strategies and provide a systemic overview of two approaches based on sequencing and function. Strategies based on protein structure modification, such as introducing disulfide bonds, proline, salt bridges, N-glycosylation modification, and truncation of loop structures, have already been summarized. This review discusses four aspects of cellulase-assisted extraction. Initially, cellulase alone was used to extract bioactive substances, and later, mixed enzyme systems were developed. Physical methods such as ultrasound, microwave, and high hydrostatic pressure have assisted in improving extraction efficiency. Cellulase changes the structure of biomolecules during the extraction process to convert them into effective ingredients with better activity and bioavailability. The combination of cellulase with other enzymes and physical technologies is a promising strategy for future extraction applications.