The contribution of synaptic location to inhibitory gain control in pyramidal cells

Daily rhythm in cortical chloride homeostasis underpins functional changes in visual cortex excitability

Cortical activity patterns are strongly modulated by fast synaptic inhibition mediated through ionotropic, chloride-conducting receptors. Consequently, chloride homeostasis is ideally placed to regulate activity. We therefore investigated the stability of baseline [Cl-]i in adult mouse neocortex, using in vivo two-photon imaging. We found a two-fold increase in baseline [Cl-]i in layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons, from day to night, with marked effects upon both physiological cortical processing and seizure susceptibility. Importantly, the night-time activity can be converted to the day-time pattern by local inhibition of NKCC1, while inhibition of KCC2 converts day-time [Cl-]i towards night-time levels. Changes in the surface expression and phosphorylation of the cation-chloride cotransporters, NKCC1 and KCC2, matched these pharmacological effects. When we extended the dark period by 4 h, mice remained active, but [Cl-]i was modulated as for animals in normal light cycles. Our data thus demonstrate a daily [Cl-]i modulation with complex effects on cortical excitability.

Structural Organization of Perisomatic Inhibition in the Mouse Medial Prefrontal Cortex

Perisomatic inhibition profoundly controls neural function. However, the structural organization of inhibitory circuits giving rise to the perisomatic inhibition in the higher-order cortices is not completely known. Here, we performed a comprehensive analysis of those GABAergic cells in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) that provide inputs onto the somata and proximal dendrites of pyramidal neurons. Our results show that most GABAergic axonal varicosities contacting the perisomatic region of superficial (layer 2/3) and deep (layer 5) pyramidal cells express parvalbumin (PV) or cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1). Further, we found that the ratio of PV/CB1 GABAergic inputs is larger on the somatic membrane surface of pyramidal tract neurons in comparison with those projecting to the contralateral hemisphere. Our morphologic analysis of in vitro labeled PV+ basket cells (PVBC) and CCK/CB1+ basket cells (CCKBC) revealed differences in many features. PVBC dendrites and axons arborized preferentially within the layer where their soma was located. In contrast, the axons of CCKBCs expanded throughout layers, although their dendrites were found preferentially either in superficial or deep layers. Finally, using anterograde trans-synaptic tracing we observed that PVBCs are preferentially innervated by thalamic and basal amygdala afferents in layers 5a and 5b, respectively. Thus, our results suggest that PVBCs can control the local circuit operation in a layer-specific manner via their characteristic arborization, whereas CCKBCs rather provide cross-layer inhibition in the mPFC.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Inhibitory cells in cortical circuits are crucial for the precise control of local network activity. Nevertheless, in higher-order cortical areas that are involved in cognitive functions like decision-making, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, the structural organization of inhibitory cell circuits is not completely understood. In this study we show that perisomatic inhibitory control of excitatory cells in the medial prefrontal cortex is performed by two types of basket cells endowed with different morphologic properties that provide inhibitory inputs with distinct layer specificity on cells projecting to disparate areas. Revealing this difference in innervation strategy of the two basket cell types is a key step toward understanding how they fulfill their distinct roles in cortical network operations.

Local and long-range GABAergic circuits in hippocampal area CA1 and their link to Alzheimer's disease

GABAergic inhibitory neurons are the principal source of inhibition in the brain. Traditionally, their role in maintaining the balance of excitation-inhibition has been emphasized. Beyond homeostatic functions, recent circuit mapping and functional manipulation studies have revealed a wide range of specific roles that GABAergic circuits play in dynamically tilting excitation-inhibition coupling across spatio-temporal scales. These span from gating of compartment- and input-specific signaling, gain modulation, shaping input-output functions and synaptic plasticity, to generating signal-to-noise contrast, defining temporal windows for integration and rate codes, as well as organizing neural assemblies, and coordinating inter-regional synchrony. GABAergic circuits are thus instrumental in controlling single-neuron computations and behaviorally-linked network activity. The activity dependent modulation of sensory and mnemonic information processing by GABAergic circuits is pivotal for the formation and maintenance of episodic memories in the hippocampus. Here, we present an overview of the local and long-range GABAergic circuits that modulate the dynamics of excitation-inhibition and disinhibition in the main output area of the hippocampus CA1, which is crucial for episodic memory. Specifically, we link recent findings pertaining to GABAergic neuron molecular markers, electrophysiological properties, and synaptic wiring with their function at the circuit level. Lastly, given that area CA1 is particularly impaired during early stages of Alzheimer's disease, we emphasize how these GABAergic circuits may contribute to and be involved in the pathophysiology.

Distinctive features of the central synaptic organization of Drosophila larval proprioceptors

Proprioceptive feedback is critically needed for locomotor control, but how this information is incorporated into central proprioceptive processing circuits remains poorly understood. Circuit organization emerges from the spatial distribution of synaptic connections between neurons. This distribution is difficult to discern in model systems where only a few cells can be probed simultaneously. Therefore, we turned to a relatively simple and accessible nervous system to ask: how are proprioceptors' input and output synapses organized in space, and what principles underlie this organization? Using the Drosophila larval connectome, we generated a map of the input and output synapses of 34 proprioceptors in several adjacent body segments (5-6 left-right pairs per segment). We characterized the spatial organization of these synapses, and compared this organization to that of other somatosensory neurons' synapses. We found three distinguishing features of larval proprioceptor synapses: (1) Generally, individual proprioceptor types display segmental somatotopy. (2) Proprioceptor output synapses both converge and diverge in space; they are organized into six spatial domains, each containing a unique set of one or more proprioceptors. Proprioceptors form output synapses along the proximal axonal entry pathway into the neuropil. (3) Proprioceptors receive few inhibitory input synapses. Further, we find that these three features do not apply to other larval somatosensory neurons. Thus, we have generated the most comprehensive map to date of how proprioceptor synapses are centrally organized. This map documents previously undescribed features of proprioceptors, raises questions about underlying developmental mechanisms, and has implications for downstream proprioceptive processing circuits.

Moving from phenomenological to predictive modelling: Progress and pitfalls of modelling brain stimulation in-silico

Brain stimulation is an increasingly popular neuromodulatory tool used in both clinical and research settings; however, the effects of brain stimulation, particularly those of non-invasive stimulation, are variable. This variability can be partially explained by an incomplete mechanistic understanding, coupled with a combinatorial explosion of possible stimulation parameters. Computational models constitute a useful tool to explore the vast sea of stimulation parameters and characterise their effects on brain activity. Yet the utility of modelling stimulation in-silico relies on its biophysical relevance, which needs to account for the dynamics of large and diverse neural populations and how underlying networks shape those collective dynamics. The large number of parameters to consider when constructing a model is no less than those needed to consider when planning empirical studies. This piece is centred on the application of phenomenological and biophysical models in non-invasive brain stimulation. We first introduce common forms of brain stimulation and computational models, and provide typical construction choices made when building phenomenological and biophysical models. Through the lens of four case studies, we provide an account of the questions these models can address, commonalities, and limitations across studies. We conclude by proposing future directions to fully realise the potential of computational models of brain stimulation for the design of personalized, efficient, and effective stimulation strategies.

Size tuning of neural response variability in laminar circuits of macaque primary visual cortex

A defining feature of the cortex is its laminar organization, which is likely critical for cortical information processing. For example, visual stimuli of different size evoke distinct patterns of laminar activity. Visual information processing is also influenced by the response variability of individual neurons and the degree to which this variability is correlated among neurons. To elucidate laminar processing, we studied how neural response variability across the layers of macaque primary visual cortex is modulated by visual stimulus size. Our laminar recordings revealed that single neuron response variability and the shared variability among neurons are tuned for stimulus size, and this size-tuning is layer-dependent. In all layers, stimulation of the receptive field (RF) reduced single neuron variability, and the shared variability among neurons, relative to their pre-stimulus values. As the stimulus was enlarged beyond the RF, both single neuron and shared variability increased in supragranular layers, but either did not change or decreased in other layers. Surprisingly, we also found that small visual stimuli could increase variability relative to baseline values. Our results suggest multiple circuits and mechanisms as the source of variability in different layers and call for the development of new models of neural response variability.

Computational models reveal how chloride dynamics determine the optimal distribution of inhibitory synapses to minimise dendritic excitability

Many neurons in the mammalian central nervous system have complex dendritic arborisations and active dendritic conductances that enable these cells to perform sophisticated computations. How dendritically targeted inhibition affects local dendritic excitability is not fully understood. Here we use computational models of branched dendrites to investigate where GABAergic synapses should be placed to minimise dendritic excitability over time. To do so, we formulate a metric we term the “Inhibitory Level” (IL), which quantifies the effectiveness of synaptic inhibition for reducing the depolarising effect of nearby excitatory input. GABAergic synaptic inhibition is dependent on the reversal potential for GABA_A receptors (EGABA), which is primarily set by the transmembrane chloride ion (Cl^-) concentration gradient. We, therefore, investigated how variable EGABA and dynamic chloride affects dendritic inhibition. We found that the inhibitory effectiveness of dendritic GABAergic synapses combines at an encircled branch junction. The extent of this inhibitory accumulation is dependent on the number of branches and location of synapses but is independent of EGABA. This inhibitory accumulation occurs even for very distally placed inhibitory synapses when they are hyperpolarising–but not when they are shunting. When accounting for Cl^- fluxes and dynamics in Cl^- concentration, we observed that Cl^- loading is detrimental to inhibitory effectiveness. This enabled us to determine the most inhibitory distribution of GABAergic synapses which is close to–but not at–a shared branch junction. This distribution balances a trade-off between a stronger combined inhibitory influence when synapses closely encircle a branch junction with the deleterious effects of increased Cl^- by loading that occurs when inhibitory synapses are co-located.

Dendritic branches allow for a rich repertoire of computational capabilities for neurons within the brain. Inhibitory synaptic inputs, which utilise the neurotransmitter GABA, refine and enhance dendritic computations. They are traditionally viewed with regards to their inhibitory effect on action potential generation at the neuronal cell body. Here, we studied the local effects of inhibitory synapses on excitability in dendrites. We also considered the dynamic nature of inhibition that deteriorates the longer it is active due to intracellular chloride ion loading. The central goal of our investigation was to find the best locations for multiple inhibitory synapses to maximise their combined inhibitory effectiveness on nearby excitation in the dendritic tree. We found that the optimal distribution is when inhibitory synapses closely encircle a branch junction, without being co-located at the junction itself. This maximises how their inhibitory influence combines whilst minimising the deleterious effects of chloride loading.

VIP-Expressing GABAergic Neurons: Disinhibitory vs. Inhibitory Motif and Its Role in Communication Across Neocortical Areas

GABAergic neurons play a crucial role in shaping cortical activity. Even though GABAergic neurons constitute a small fraction of cortical neurons, their peculiar morphology and functional properties make them an intriguing and challenging task to study. Here, we review the basic anatomical features, the circuit properties, and the possible role in the relevant behavioral task of a subclass of GABAergic neurons that express vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP). These studies were performed using transgenic mice in which the VIP-expressing neurons can be recognized using fluorescent proteins and optogenetic manipulation to control (or regulate) their electrical activity. Cortical VIP-expressing neurons are more abundant in superficial cortical layers than other cortical layers, where they are mainly studied. Optogenetic and paired recordings performed in ex vivo cortical preparations show that VIP-expressing neurons mainly exert their inhibitory effect onto somatostatin-expressing (SOM) inhibitory neurons, leading to a disinhibitory effect onto excitatory pyramidal neurons. However, this subclass of GABAergic neurons also releases neurotransmitters onto other GABAergic and non-GABAergic neurons, suggesting other possible circuit roles than a disinhibitory effect. The heterogeneity of VIP-expressing neurons also suggests their involvement and recruitment during different functions via the inhibition/disinhibition of GABAergic and non-GABAergic neurons locally and distally, depending on the specific local circuit in which they are embedded, with potential effects on the behavioral states of the animal. Although VIP-expressing neurons represent only a tiny fraction of GABAergic inhibitory neurons in the cortex, these neurons’ selective activation/inactivation could produce a relevant behavioral effect in the animal. Regardless of the increasing finding and discoveries on this subclass of GABAergic neurons, there is still a lot of missing information, and more studies should be done to unveil their role at the circuit and behavior level in different cortical layers and across different neocortical areas.

Cholinergic modulation of dentate gyrus processing through dynamic reconfiguration of inhibitory circuits

The dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus plays a key role in memory formation, and it is known to be modulated by septal projections. By performing electrophysiology and optogenetics, we evaluated the role of cholinergic modulation in the processing of afferent inputs in the DG. We show that mature granule cells (GCs), but not adult-born immature neurons, have increased responses to afferent perforant path stimuli upon cholinergic modulation. This is due to a highly precise reconfiguration of inhibitory circuits, differentially affecting Parvalbumin and Somatostatin interneurons, resulting in a nicotinic-dependent perisomatic disinhibition of GCs. This circuit reorganization provides a mechanism by which mature GCs could escape the strong inhibition they receive, creating a window of opportunity for plasticity. Indeed, coincident activation of perforant path inputs with optogenetic release of acetylcholine produces a long-term potentiated response in GCs, essential for memory formation.

Impact of GABAA and GABAB Inhibition on Cortical Dynamics and Perturbational Complexity during Synchronous and Desynchronized States

Quantitative estimations of spatiotemporal complexity of cortical activity patterns are used in the clinic as a measure of consciousness levels, but the cortical mechanisms involved are not fully understood. We used a version of the perturbational complexity index (PCI) adapted to multisite recordings from the ferret (either sex) cerebral cortex in vitro (sPCI) to investigate the role of GABAergic inhibition in cortical complexity. We studied two dynamical states: slow-wave activity (synchronous state) and desynchronized activity, that express low and high causal complexity respectively. Progressive blockade of GABAergic inhibition during both regimes revealed its impact on the emergent cortical activity and on sPCI. Gradual GABAA receptor blockade resulted in higher synchronization, being able to drive the network from a desynchronized to a synchronous state, with a progressive decrease of complexity (sPCI). Blocking GABAB receptors also resulted in a reduced sPCI, in particular when in a synchronous, slow wave state. Our findings demonstrate that physiological levels of inhibition contribute to the generation of dynamical richness and spatiotemporal complexity. However, if inhibition is diminished or enhanced, cortical complexity decreases. Using a computational model, we explored a larger parameter space in this relationship and demonstrate a link between excitatory/inhibitory balance and the complexity expressed by the cortical network.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The spatiotemporal complexity of the activity expressed by the cerebral cortex is a highly revealing feature of the underlying network's state. Complexity varies with physiological brain states: it is higher during awake than during sleep states. But it also informs about pathologic states: in disorders of consciousness, complexity is lower in an unresponsive wakefulness syndrome than in a minimally conscious state. What are the network parameters that modulate complexity? Here we investigate how inhibition, mediated by either GABAA or GABAA receptors, influences cortical complexity. And we do this departing from two extreme functional states: a highly synchronous, slow-wave state, and a desynchronized one that mimics wakefulness. We find that there is an optimal level of inhibition in which complexity is highest.

Hippocampal hyperactivity in a rat model of Alzheimer's disease

Neuronal network dysfunction is a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the underlying pathomechanisms remain unknown. We analyzed the hippocampal micronetwork in transgenic McGill-R-Thy1-APP rats (APPtg) at the beginning of extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) deposition. We established two-photon Ca²⁺ -imaging in vivo in the hippocampus of rats and found hyperactivity of CA1 neurons. Patch-clamp recordings in brain slices in vitro revealed increased neuronal input resistance and prolonged action potential width in CA1 pyramidal neurons. We did neither observe changes in synaptic inhibition, nor in excitation. Our data support the view that increased intrinsic excitability of CA1 neurons may precede inhibitory dysfunction at an early stage of Aβ-deposition and disease progression.

Establishment and Maintenance of Neural Circuit Architecture

The ability to sense the world, process information, and navigate the environment depends on the assembly and continuous function of neural circuits in the brain. Within the past two decades, new technologies have rapidly advanced our understanding of how neural circuits are wired during development and how they are stably maintained, often for years. Electron microscopy reconstructions of model organism connectomes have provided a map of the stereotyped (and variable) connections in the brain; advanced light microscopy techniques have enabled direct observation of the cellular dynamics that underlie circuit construction and maintenance; transcriptomic and proteomic surveys of both developing and mature neurons have provided insights into the molecular and genetic programs governing circuit establishment and maintenance; and advanced genetic techniques have allowed for high-throughput discovery of wiring regulators. These tools have empowered scientists to rapidly generate and test hypotheses about how circuits establish and maintain connectivity. Thus, the set of principles governing circuit formation and maintenance have been expanded. These principles are discussed in this review.

The ins and outs of inhibitory synaptic plasticity: Neuron types, molecular mechanisms and functional roles

GABAergic interneurons are highly diverse, and their synaptic outputs express various forms of plasticity. Compelling evidence indicates that activity-dependent changes of inhibitory synaptic transmission play a significant role in regulating neural circuits critically involved in learning and memory and circuit refinement. Here, we provide an updated overview of inhibitory synaptic plasticity with a focus on the hippocampus and neocortex. To illustrate the diversity of inhibitory interneurons, we discuss the case of two highly divergent interneuron types, parvalbumin-expressing basket cells and neurogliaform cells, which support unique roles on circuit dynamics. We also present recent progress on the molecular mechanisms underlying long-term, activity-dependent plasticity of fast inhibitory transmission. Lastly, we discuss the role of inhibitory synaptic plasticity in neuronal circuits' function. The emerging picture is that inhibitory synaptic transmission in the CNS is extremely diverse, undergoes various mechanistically distinct forms of plasticity and contributes to a much more refined computational role than initially thought. Both the remarkable diversity of inhibitory interneurons and the various forms of plasticity expressed by GABAergic synapses provide an amazingly rich inhibitory repertoire that is central to a variety of complex neural circuit functions, including memory.

Chloride dynamics alter the input-output properties of neurons

Fast synaptic inhibition is a critical determinant of neuronal output, with subcellular targeting of synaptic inhibition able to exert different transformations of the neuronal input-output function. At the receptor level, synaptic inhibition is primarily mediated by chloride-permeable Type A GABA receptors. Consequently, dynamics in the neuronal chloride concentration can alter the functional properties of inhibitory synapses. How differences in the spatial targeting of inhibitory synapses interact with intracellular chloride dynamics to modulate the input-output function of neurons is not well understood. To address this, we developed computational models of multi-compartment neurons that incorporate experimentally parametrised mechanisms to account for neuronal chloride influx, diffusion, and extrusion. We found that synaptic input (either excitatory, inhibitory, or both) can lead to subcellular variations in chloride concentration, despite a uniform distribution of chloride extrusion mechanisms. Accounting for chloride changes resulted in substantial alterations in the neuronal input-output function. This was particularly the case for peripherally targeted dendritic inhibition where dynamic chloride compromised the ability of inhibition to offset neuronal input-output curves. Our simulations revealed that progressive changes in chloride concentration mean that the neuronal input-output function is not static but varies significantly as a function of the duration of synaptic drive. Finally, we found that the observed effects of dynamic chloride on neuronal output were mediated by changes in the dendritic reversal potential for GABA. Our findings provide a framework for understanding the computational effects of chloride dynamics on dendritically targeted synaptic inhibition.

Treatment with Mesenchymal-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Reduces Injury-Related Pathology in Pyramidal Neurons of Monkey Perilesional Ventral Premotor Cortex

Functional recovery after cortical injury, such as stroke, is associated with neural circuit reorganization, but the underlying mechanisms and efficacy of therapeutic interventions promoting neural plasticity in primates are not well understood. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs), which mediate cell-to-cell inflammatory and trophic signaling, are thought be viable therapeutic targets. We recently showed, in aged female rhesus monkeys, that systemic administration of MSC-EVs enhances recovery of function after injury of the primary motor cortex, likely through enhancing plasticity in perilesional motor and premotor cortices. Here, using in vitro whole-cell patch-clamp recording and intracellular filling in acute slices of ventral premotor cortex (vPMC) from rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) of either sex, we demonstrate that MSC-EVs reduce injury-related physiological and morphologic changes in perilesional layer 3 pyramidal neurons. At 14-16 weeks after injury, vPMC neurons from both vehicle- and EV-treated lesioned monkeys exhibited significant hyperexcitability and predominance of inhibitory synaptic currents, compared with neurons from nonlesioned control brains. However, compared with vehicle-treated monkeys, neurons from EV-treated monkeys showed lower firing rates, greater spike frequency adaptation, and excitatory:inhibitory ratio. Further, EV treatment was associated with greater apical dendritic branching complexity, spine density, and inhibition, indicative of enhanced dendritic plasticity and filtering of signals integrated at the soma. Importantly, the degree of EV-mediated reduction of injury-related pathology in vPMC was significantly correlated with measures of behavioral recovery. These data show that EV treatment dampens injury-related hyperexcitability and restores excitatory:inhibitory balance in vPMC, thereby normalizing activity within cortical networks for motor function.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Neuronal plasticity can facilitate recovery of function after cortical injury, but the underlying mechanisms and efficacy of therapeutic interventions promoting this plasticity in primates are not well understood. Our recent work has shown that intravenous infusions of mesenchymal-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) that are involved in cell-to-cell inflammatory and trophic signaling can enhance recovery of motor function after injury in monkey primary motor cortex. This study shows that this EV-mediated enhancement of recovery is associated with amelioration of injury-related hyperexcitability and restoration of excitatory-inhibitory balance in perilesional ventral premotor cortex. These findings demonstrate the efficacy of mesenchymal EVs as a therapeutic to reduce injury-related pathologic changes in the physiology and structure of premotor pyramidal neurons and support recovery of function.

Divisive gain modulation enables flexible and rapid entrainment in a neocortical microcircuit model

Neocortical circuits exhibit a rich dynamic repertoire, and their ability to achieve entrainment (adjustment of their frequency to match the input frequency) is thought to support many cognitive functions and indicate functional flexibility. Although previous studies have explored the influence of various circuit properties on this phenomenon, the role of divisive gain modulation (or divisive inhibition) is unknown. This gain control mechanism is thought to be delivered mainly by the soma-targeting interneurons in neocortical microcircuits. In this study, we use a neural mass model of the neocortical microcircuit (extended Wilson-Cowan model) featuring both soma-targeting and dendrite-targeting interneuronal subpopulations to investigate the role of divisive gain modulation in entrainment. Our results demonstrate that the presence of divisive inhibition in the microcircuit, as delivered by the soma-targeting interneurons, enables its entrainment to a wider range of input frequencies. Divisive inhibition also promotes a faster entrainment, with the microcircuit needing less time to converge to the fully entrained state. We suggest that divisive inhibition, working alongside subtractive inhibition, allows for more adaptive oscillatory responses in neocortical circuits and, thus, supports healthy brain functioning.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We introduce a computational neocortical microcircuit model that features two inhibitory neural populations, with one providing subtractive and the other divisive inhibition to the excitatory population. We demonstrate that divisive inhibition widens the range of input frequencies to which the microcircuit can become entrained and diminishes the time needed to reach full entrainment. We suggest that divisive inhibition enables more adaptive oscillatory activity, with important implications for both normal and pathological brain function.

Isolating the key factors defining the magnitude of hippocampal neurogenesis' effects on anxiety, memory and pattern separation

In this paper, I analyze the hypothesis that hippocampal neurogenesis (HN) exerts its effects on behavior via activation of inhibitory circuits in the hippocampus. Using a very simple mathematical model (half-borrowed from biochemistry) to aid the reasoning, I show that the key factors determining the magnitude of HN's effects on behavior are: the baseline levels of HN in the animal, the efficiency of the animal's inhibitory circuits, the strength/intensity of the stimulus presented to the animal and how much accuracy the behavioral task requires from the information contained in the hippocampal representations. Taken together, those factors can help explain patterns observed in the behavioral results for memory, pattern separation and anxiety. The conclusions of the analysis suggest that HN's effects on inhibitory circuits can explain the impact of neurogenesis on both emotion and cognition and provide a framework to interpret future studies about the effects of HN on different behaviors, with animals of different ages and of different species.

A Non-Canonical Cortico-Amygdala Inhibitory Loop

Discriminating between auditory signals of different affective value is critical for the survival and success of social interaction of an individual. Anatomical, electrophysiological, imaging, and optogenetics approaches have established that the auditory cortex (AC) by providing auditory information to the lateral amygdala (LA) via long-range excitatory glutamatergic projections has an impact on sound-driven aversive/fear behavior. Here we test the hypothesis that the LA also receives GABAergic projections from the cortex. We addressed this fundamental question by taking advantage of optogenetics, anatomical, and electrophysiology approaches and directly examining the functional effects of cortical GABAergic inputs to LA neurons of the mouse (male/female) AC. We found that the cortex, via cortico-lateral-amygdala somatostatin neurons (CLA-SOM), has a direct inhibitory influence on the output of the LA principal neurons. Our results define a CLA long-range inhibitory circuit (CLA-SOM inhibitory projections → LA principal neurons) underlying the control of spike timing/generation in LA and LA-AC projecting neurons, and attributes a specific function to a genetically defined type of cortical long-range GABAergic neurons in CLA communication.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT It is very well established that cortical auditory inputs to the lateral amygdala are exclusively excitatory and that cortico-amygdala neuronal activity has been shown to be involved in sound-driven aversive/fear behavior. Here, for the first time, we show that the lateral amygdala receives long-range GABAergic projection from the auditory cortex and these form direct monosynaptic inhibitory connections onto lateral amygdala principal neurons. Our results define a cellular basis for direct inhibitory communication from auditory cortex to the lateral amygdala, suggesting that the timing and ratio of excitation and inhibition, two opposing forces in the mammalian cerebral cortex, can dynamically affect the output of the lateral amygdala, providing a general mechanism for fear/aversive behavior driven by auditory stimuli.

Short-term dynamics of input and output of CA1 network greatly differ between the dorsal and ventral rat hippocampus

Background

The functional heterogeneity of the hippocampus along its longitudinal axis at the level of behavior is an established concept; however, the neurobiological mechanisms are still unknown. Diversifications in the functioning of intrinsic hippocampal circuitry including short-term dynamics of synaptic inputs and neuronal output, that are important determinants of information processing in the brain, may profoundly contribute to functional specializations along the hippocampus. The objectives of the present study were the examination of the role of the GABA_A receptor-mediated inhibition, the μ-opioid receptors and the effect of stimulation intensity on the dynamics of both synaptic input and neuronal output of CA1 region in the dorsal and ventral hippocampus. We used recordings of field potentials from adult rat hippocampal slices evoked by brief repetitive activation of Schaffer collaterals.

Results

We find that the local CA1 circuit of the dorsal hippocampus presents a remarkably increased dynamic range of frequency-dependent short-term changes in both input and output, ranging from strong facilitation to intense depression at low and high stimulation frequencies respectively. Furthermore, the input–output relationship in the dorsal CA1 circuit is profoundly influenced by frequency and time of presynaptic activation. Strikingly, the ventral hippocampus responds mostly with depression, displaying a rather monotonous input–output relationship over frequency and time. Partial blockade of GABA_A receptor-mediated transmission (by 5 μM picrotoxin) profoundly influences input and output dynamics in the dorsal hippocampus but affected only the neuronal output in the ventral hippocampus. M-opioid receptors control short-term dynamics of input and output in the dorsal hippocampus but they play no role in the ventral hippocampus.

Conclusion

The results demonstrate that information processing by CA1 local network is highly diversified between the dorsal and ventral hippocampus. Transient detection of incoming patterns of activity and frequency-dependent sustained signaling of amplified neuronal information may be assigned to the ventral and dorsal hippocampal circuitry respectively. This disparity should have profound implications for the functional roles ascribed to distinct segments along the long axis of the hippocampus.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12868-019-0517-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Role of inhibitory control in modulating focal seizure spread

Focal seizure propagation is classically thought to be spatially contiguous. However, distribution of seizures through a large-scale epileptic network has been theorized. Here, we used a multielectrode array, wide field calcium imaging, and two-photon calcium imaging to study focal seizure propagation pathways in an acute rodent neocortical 4-aminopyridine model. Although ictal neuronal bursts did not propagate beyond a 2-3-mm region, they were associated with hemisphere-wide field potential fluctuations and parvalbumin-positive interneuron activity outside the seizure focus. While bicuculline surface application enhanced contiguous seizure propagation, focal bicuculline microinjection at sites distant to the 4-aminopyridine focus resulted in epileptic network formation with maximal activity at the two foci. Our study suggests that both classical and epileptic network propagation can arise from localized inhibition defects, and that the network appearance can arise in the context of normal brain structure without requirement for pathological connectivity changes between sites.

Cell-Type Specificity of Callosally Evoked Excitation and Feedforward Inhibition in the Prefrontal Cortex

Excitation and inhibition are highly specific in the cortex, with distinct synaptic connections made onto subtypes of projection neurons. The functional consequences of this selective connectivity depend on both synaptic strength and the intrinsic properties of targeted neurons but remain poorly understood. Here, we examine responses to callosal inputs at cortico-cortical (CC) and cortico-thalamic (CT) neurons in layer 5 of mouse prelimbic prefrontal cortex (PFC). We find callosally evoked excitation and feedforward inhibition are much stronger at CT neurons compared to neighboring CC neurons. Elevated inhibition at CT neurons reflects biased synaptic inputs from parvalbumin and somatostatin positive interneurons. The intrinsic properties of postsynaptic targets equalize excitatory and inhibitory response amplitudes but selectively accelerate decays at CT neurons. Feedforward inhibition further reduces response amplitude and balances action potential firing across these projection neurons. Our findings highlight the synaptic and cellular mechanisms regulating callosal recruitment of layer 5 microcircuits in PFC.

Cortical Circuits of Callosal GABAergic Neurons

Anatomical studies have shown that the majority of callosal axons are glutamatergic. However, a small proportion of callosal axons are also immunoreactive for glutamic acid decarboxylase, an enzyme required for gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) synthesis and a specific marker for GABAergic neurons. Here, we test the hypothesis that corticocortical parvalbumin-expressing (CC-Parv) neurons connect the two hemispheres of multiple cortical areas, project through the corpus callosum, and are a functional part of the local cortical circuit. Our investigation of this hypothesis takes advantage of viral tracing and optogenetics to determine the anatomical and electrophysiological properties of CC-Parv neurons of the mouse auditory, visual, and motor cortices. We found a direct inhibitory pathway made up of parvalbumin-expressing (Parv) neurons which connects corresponding cortical areas (CC-Parv neurons → contralateral cortex). Like other Parv cortical neurons, these neurons provide local inhibition onto nearby pyramidal neurons and receive thalamocortical input. These results demonstrate a previously unknown long-range inhibitory circuit arising from a genetically defined type of GABAergic neuron that is engaged in interhemispheric communication.

Increased hippocampal GABAergic inhibition after long-term high-intensity sound exposure

Exposure to loud sounds is related to harmful mental and systemic effects. The hippocampal function can be affected to either high-intensity sound exposure or long-term sound deprivation. We previously showed that hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) is inhibited after ten days of daily exposure to 2 minutes of high-intensity noise (110 dB), in the hippocampi of Wistar rats. Here we investigated how the glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission mediated by ionotropic receptors is affected by the same protocol of high-intensity sound exposure. We found that while the glutamatergic transmission both by AMPA/kainate and NMDA receptors in the Schaffer-CA1 synapses is unaffected by long-term exposure to high-intensity sound, the amplitude of the inhibitory GABAergic currents is potentiated, but not the frequency of both spontaneous and miniature currents. We conclude that after prolonged exposure to short periods of high-intensity sound, GABAergic transmission is potentiated in the hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. This effect could be an essential factor for the reduced LTP in the hippocampi of these animals after high-intensity sound exposure. We conclude that prolonged exposure to high- intensity sound could affect hippocampal inhibitory transmission and consequently, its function.

Regulation of subcellular dendritic synapse specificity by axon guidance cues

Neural circuit assembly occurs with subcellular precision, yet the mechanisms underlying this precision remain largely unknown. Subcellular synaptic specificity could be achieved by molecularly distinct subcellular domains that locally regulate synapse formation, or by axon guidance cues restricting access to one of several acceptable targets. We address these models using two Drosophila neurons: the dbd sensory neuron and the A08a interneuron. In wild-type larvae, dbd synapses with the A08a medial dendrite but not the A08a lateral dendrite. dbd-specific overexpression of the guidance receptors Unc-5 or Robo-2 results in lateralization of the dbd axon, which forms anatomical and functional monosynaptic connections with the A08a lateral dendrite. We conclude that axon guidance cues, not molecularly distinct dendritic arbors, are a major determinant of dbd-A08a subcellular synapse specificity.

Multiscale recordings reveal the dynamic spatial structure of human seizures

The cellular activity underlying human focal seizures, and its relationship to key signatures in the EEG recordings used for therapeutic purposes, has not been well characterized despite many years of investigation both in laboratory and clinical settings. The increasing use of microelectrodes in epilepsy surgery patients has made it possible to apply principles derived from laboratory research to the problem of mapping the spatiotemporal structure of human focal seizures, and characterizing the corresponding EEG signatures. In this review, we describe results from human microelectrode studies, discuss some data interpretation pitfalls, and explain the current understanding of the key mechanisms of ictogenesis and seizure spread.

Feedforward inhibition ahead of ictal wavefronts is provided by both parvalbumin- and somatostatin-expressing interneurons

Key points

There is a rapid interneuronal response to focal activity in cortex, which restrains laterally propagating activity, including spreading epileptiform activity.

The interneuronal response involves intense activation of both parvalbumin‐ and somatostatin‐expressing interneurons.

Interneuronal bursting is time‐locked to glutamatergic barrages in the pre‐ictal period.

Ca²⁺ imaging using conditional expression of GCaMP6f provides an accurate readout of the evolving firing patterns in both types of interneuron.

The activation profiles of the two interneuronal classes are temporally offset, with the parvalbumin population being activated first, and typically, at higher rates.

Abstract

Previous work has described powerful restraints on laterally spreading activity in cortical networks, arising from a rapid feedforward interneuronal response to focal activity. This response is particularly prominent ahead of an ictal wavefront. Parvalbumin‐positive interneurons are considered to be critically involved in this feedforward inhibition, but it is not known what role, if any, is provided by somatostatin‐expressing interneurons, which target the distal dendrites of pyramidal cells. We used a combination of electrophysiology and cell class‐specific Ca²⁺ imaging in mouse brain slices bathed in 0 Mg²⁺ medium to characterize the activity profiles of pyramidal cells and parvalbumin‐ and somatostatin‐expressing interneurons during epileptiform activation. The GCaMP6f signal strongly correlates with the level of activity for both interneuronal classes. Both interneuronal classes participate in the feedfoward inhibition. This contrasts starkly with the pattern of pyramidal recruitment, which is greatly delayed. During these barrages, both sets of interneurons show intense bursting, at rates up to 300Hz, which is time‐locked to the glutamatergic barrages. The activity of parvalbumin‐expressing interneurons appears to peak early in the pre‐ictal period, and can display depolarizing block during the ictal event. In contrast, somatostatin‐expressing interneuronal activity peaks significantly later, and firing persists throughout the ictal events. Interictal events appear to be very similar to the pre‐ictal period, albeit with slightly lower firing rates. Thus, the inhibitory restraint arises from a coordinated pattern of activity in the two main classes of cortical interneurons.

There is a rapid interneuronal response to focal activity in cortex, which restrains laterally propagating activity, including spreading epileptiform activity.

The interneuronal response involves intense activation of both parvalbumin‐ and somatostatin‐expressing interneurons.

Interneuronal bursting is time‐locked to glutamatergic barrages in the pre‐ictal period.

Ca²⁺ imaging using conditional expression of GCaMP6f provides an accurate readout of the evolving firing patterns in both types of interneuron.

The activation profiles of the two interneuronal classes are temporally offset, with the parvalbumin population being activated first, and typically, at higher rates.

Specialized Subpopulations of Deep-Layer Pyramidal Neurons in the Neocortex: Bridging Cellular Properties to Functional Consequences

Neocortical pyramidal neurons with somata in layers 5 and 6 are among the most visually striking and enigmatic neurons in the brain. These deep-layer pyramidal neurons (DLPNs) integrate a plethora of cortical and extracortical synaptic inputs along their impressive dendritic arbors. The pattern of cortical output to both local and long-distance targets is sculpted by the unique physiological properties of specific DLPN subpopulations. Here we revisit two broad DLPN subpopulations: those that send their axons within the telencephalon (intratelencephalic neurons) and those that project to additional target areas outside the telencephalon (extratelencephalic neurons). While neuroscientists across many subdisciplines have characterized the intrinsic and synaptic physiological properties of DLPN subpopulations, our increasing ability to selectively target and manipulate these output neuron subtypes advances our understanding of their distinct functional contributions. This Viewpoints article summarizes our current knowledge about DLPNs and highlights recent work elucidating the functional differences between DLPN subpopulations.

Dominant-Negative DISC1 Alters the Dopaminergic Modulation of Inhibitory Interneurons in the Mouse Prefrontal Cortex

A truncated disrupted in schizophrenia 1 (Disc1) gene increases the risk of psychiatric disorders, probably affecting cortical interneurons. Here, we sought to determine whether this cell population is affected in mice carrying a truncated (Disc1) allele (DN-DISC1). We utilized whole cell recordings to assess electrophysiological properties and modulation by dopamine (DA) in two classes of interneurons: fast-spiking (FS) and low threshold-spiking (LTS) interneurons in wild-type and DN-DISC1 mice. In DN-DISC1 mice, FS interneurons, but not LTS interneurons, exhibited altered action potentials. Further, the perineuronal nets that surround FS interneurons exhibited abnormal morphology in DN-DISC1 mice, and the DA modulation of this cell type was altered in DN-DISC1 mice. We conclude that early-life manipulation of a gene associated with risk of psychiatric disease can result in dysfunction, but not loss, of specific GABAergic interneurons. The resulting alteration of excitatory-inhibitory balance is a critical element in DISC1 pathophysiology.

Layer 5 Callosal Parvalbumin-Expressing Neurons: A Distinct Functional Group of GABAergic Neurons

Previous studies have shown that parvalbumin-expressing neurons (CC-Parv neurons) connect the two hemispheres of motor and sensory areas via the corpus callosum, and are a functional part of the cortical circuit. Here we test the hypothesis that layer 5 CC-Parv neurons possess anatomical and molecular mechanisms which dampen excitability and modulate the gating of interhemispheric inhibition. In order to investigate this hypothesis we use viral tracing to determine the anatomical and electrophysiological properties of layer 5 CC-Parv and parvalbumin-expressing (Parv) neurons of the mouse auditory cortex (AC). Here we show that layer 5 CC-Parv neurons had larger dendritic fields characterized by longer dendrites that branched farther from the soma, whereas layer 5 Parv neurons had smaller dendritic fields characterized by shorter dendrites that branched nearer to the soma. The layer 5 CC-Parv neurons are characterized by delayed action potential (AP) responses to threshold currents, lower firing rates, and lower instantaneous frequencies compared to the layer 5 Parv neurons. Kv1.1 containing K⁺ channels are the main source of the AP repolarization of the layer 5 CC-Parv and have a major role in determining both the spike delayed response, firing rate and instantaneous frequency of these neurons.

Assessment of epilepsy using noninvasive visual psychophysics tests of surround suppression

Powerful endogenous inhibitory mechanisms are thought to restrict the spread of epileptic discharges in cortical networks. Similar inhibitory mechanisms also influence physiological processing. We reasoned, therefore, that useful information about the quality of inhibitory restraint in individuals with epilepsy may be gleaned from psychophysical assays of these physiological processes. We derived a psychophysical measure of cortical inhibition, the motion surround suppression index (SSI), in 54 patients with epilepsy and 146 control subjects. Multivariate regression analyses showed that SSI was predicted strongly by age and seizure type, but not by seizure frequency. Specifically, we found that patients with exclusively focal epilepsy, and no history of generalization, showed significantly stronger cortical inhibition as measured by the SSI compared to all other groups, including controls. In contrast, patients with focal seizures evolving into generalized seizures, and patients with generalized genetic epilepsy, showed similar levels of cortical inhibition to controls. The presumptive focus, when one could be identified, was rarely found in visual cortex, meaning that the relationship with the epilepsy subtype is likely to reflect some global difference in inhibition in these subjects. This is the first reported instance of raised SSI in any patient cohort, and appears to differentiate between patients with respect to the likelihood of their experiencing generalization of their seizures. These results suggest that such simple psychophysical assays may provide useful aids to clinical management, particularly at the time of diagnosis.

Hippocampal GABAergic Inhibitory Interneurons

In the hippocampus GABAergic local circuit inhibitory interneurons represent only ~10-15% of the total neuronal population; however, their remarkable anatomical and physiological diversity allows them to regulate virtually all aspects of cellular and circuit function. Here we provide an overview of the current state of the field of interneuron research, focusing largely on the hippocampus. We discuss recent advances related to the various cell types, including their development and maturation, expression of subtype-specific voltage- and ligand-gated channels, and their roles in network oscillations. We also discuss recent technological advances and approaches that have permitted high-resolution, subtype-specific examination of their roles in numerous neural circuit disorders and the emerging therapeutic strategies to ameliorate such pathophysiological conditions. The ultimate goal of this review is not only to provide a touchstone for the current state of the field, but to help pave the way for future research by highlighting where gaps in our knowledge exist and how a complete appreciation of their roles will aid in future therapeutic strategies.

GABAergic Interneurons in the Neocortex: From Cellular Properties to Circuits

Cortical networks are composed of glutamatergic excitatory projection neurons and local GABAergic inhibitory interneurons that gate signal flow and sculpt network dynamics. Although they represent a minority of the total neocortical neuronal population, GABAergic interneurons are highly heterogeneous, forming functional classes based on their morphological, electrophysiological, and molecular features, as well as connectivity and in vivo patterns of activity. Here we review our current understanding of neocortical interneuron diversity and the properties that distinguish cell types. We then discuss how the involvement of multiple cell types, each with a specific set of cellular properties, plays a crucial role in diversifying and increasing the computational power of a relatively small number of simple circuit motifs forming cortical networks. We illustrate how recent advances in the field have shed light onto the mechanisms by which GABAergic inhibition contributes to network operations.

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury Evokes Pyramidal Neuron Axon Initial Segment Plasticity and Diffuse Presynaptic Inhibitory Terminal Loss

The axon initial segment (AIS) is the site of action potential (AP) initiation, thus a crucial regulator of neuronal activity. In excitatory pyramidal neurons, the high density of voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV1.6) at the distal AIS regulates AP initiation. A surrogate AIS marker, ankyrin-G (ankG) is a structural protein regulating neuronal functional via clustering voltage-gated ion channels. In neuronal circuits, changes in presynaptic input can alter postsynaptic output via AIS structural-functional plasticity. Recently, we showed experimental mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) evokes neocortical circuit disruption via diffuse axonal injury (DAI) of excitatory and inhibitory neuronal systems. A key finding was that mTBI-induced neocortical electrophysiological changes involved non-DAI/ intact excitatory pyramidal neurons consistent with AIS-specific alterations. In the current study we employed Thy1-yellow fluorescent protein (YFP)-H mice to test if mTBI induces AIS structural and/or functional plasticity within intact pyramidal neurons 2 days after mTBI. We used confocal microscopy to assess intact YFP+ pyramidal neurons in layer 5 of primary somatosensory barrel field (S1BF), whose axons were continuous from the soma of origin to the subcortical white matter (SCWM). YFP+ axonal traces were superimposed on ankG and NaV1.6 immunofluorescent profiles to determine AIS position and length. We found that while mTBI had no effect on ankG start position, the length significantly decreased from the distal end, consistent with the site of AP initiation at the AIS. However, NaV1.6 structure did not change after mTBI, suggesting uncoupling from ankG. Parallel quantitative analysis of presynaptic inhibitory terminals along the postsynaptic perisomatic domain of these same intact YFP+ excitatory pyramidal neurons revealed a significant decrease in GABAergic bouton density. Also within this non-DAI population, patch-clamp recordings of intact YFP+ pyramidal neurons showed AP acceleration decreased 2 days post-mTBI, consistent with AIS functional plasticity. Simulations of realistic pyramidal neuron computational models using experimentally determined AIS lengths showed a subtle decrease is NaV1.6 density is sufficient to attenuate AP acceleration. Collectively, these findings highlight the complexity of mTBI-induced neocortical circuit disruption, involving changes in extrinsic/presynaptic inhibitory perisomatic input interfaced with intrinsic/postsynaptic intact excitatory neuron AIS output.

Perisomatic GABAergic synapses of basket cells effectively control principal neuron activity in amygdala networks

Efficient control of principal neuron firing by basket cells is critical for information processing in cortical microcircuits, however, the relative contribution of their perisomatic and dendritic synapses to spike inhibition is still unknown. Using in vitro electrophysiological paired recordings we reveal that in the mouse basal amygdala cholecystokinin- and parvalbumin-containing basket cells provide equally potent control of principal neuron spiking. We performed pharmacological manipulations, light and electron microscopic investigations to show that, although basket cells innervate the entire somato-denditic membrane surface of principal neurons, the spike controlling effect is achieved primarily via the minority of synapses targeting the perisomatic region. As the innervation patterns of individual basket cells on their different postsynaptic partners show high variability, the impact of inhibitory control accomplished by single basket cells is also variable. Our results show that both basket cell types can powerfully regulate the activity in amygdala networks predominantly via their perisomatic synapses.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.20721.001

The Effects of Realistic Synaptic Distribution and 3D Geometry on Signal Integration and Extracellular Field Generation of Hippocampal Pyramidal Cells and Inhibitory Neurons

In vivo and in vitro multichannel field and somatic intracellular recordings are frequently used to study mechanisms of network pattern generation. When interpreting these data, neurons are often implicitly considered as electrotonically compact cylinders with a homogeneous distribution of excitatory and inhibitory inputs. However, the actual distributions of dendritic length, diameter, and the densities of excitatory and inhibitory input are non-uniform and cell type-specific. We first review quantitative data on the dendritic structure and synaptic input and output distribution of pyramidal cells (PCs) and interneurons in the hippocampal CA1 area. Second, using multicompartmental passive models of four different types of neurons, we quantitatively explore the effect of differences in dendritic structure and synaptic distribution on the errors and biases of voltage clamp measurements of inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic currents. Finally, using the 3-dimensional distribution of dendrites and synaptic inputs we calculate how different inhibitory and excitatory inputs contribute to the generation of local field potential in the hippocampus. We analyze these effects at different realistic background activity levels as synaptic bombardment influences neuronal conductance and thus the propagation of signals in the dendritic tree. We conclude that, since dendrites are electrotonically long and entangled in 3D, somatic intracellular and field potential recordings miss the majority of dendritic events in some cell types, and thus overemphasize the importance of perisomatic inhibitory inputs and belittle the importance of complex dendritic processing. Modeling results also suggest that PCs and inhibitory neurons probably use different input integration strategies. In PCs, second- and higher-order thin dendrites are relatively well-isolated from each other, which may support branch-specific local processing as suggested by studies of active dendritic integration. In the electrotonically compact parvalbumin- and cholecystokinincontaining interneurons, synaptic events are visible in the whole dendritic arbor, and thus the entire dendritic tree may form a single integrative element. Calretinin-containing interneurons were found to be electrotonically extended, which suggests the possibility of complex dendritic processing in this cell type. Our results also highlight the need for the integration of methods that allow the measurement of dendritic processes into studies of synaptic interactions and dynamics in neural networks.

Do Cortical Circuits Need Protecting from Themselves?

All hippocampal and neocortical networks can be driven to seize quite easily. This can be done using drugs, by altering the ionic constituency of the bathing medium [cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)], or by electrical stimulation (both experimentally and clinically, as in electroconvulsive therapy). It is worth asking why this is so, because this will both tell us more about potentially devastating neurological disorders and extend our understanding of cortical function and architecture. Here I review work examining the features of cortical networks that bias activity towards and away from hyperexcitability. I suggest that several cellular- and circuit-level features of rapidly responsive interneuron networks tip the balance away from seizure in the healthy brain.

Inhibition Controls Asynchronous States of Neuronal Networks

Computations in cortical circuits require action potentials from excitatory and inhibitory neurons. In this mini-review, I first provide a quick overview of findings that indicate that GABAergic neurons play a fundamental role in coordinating spikes and generating synchronized network activity. Next, I argue that these observations helped popularize the notion that network oscillations require a high degree of spike correlations among interneurons which, in turn, produce synchronous inhibition of the local microcircuit. The aim of this text is to discuss some recent experimental and computational findings that support a complementary view: one in which interneurons participate actively in producing asynchronous states in cortical networks. This requires a proper mixture of shared excitation and inhibition leading to asynchronous activity between neighboring cells. Such contribution from interneurons would be extremely important because it would tend to reduce the spike correlation between neighboring pyramidal cells, a drop in redundancy that could enhance the information-processing capacity of neural networks.

The role of inhibition in epileptic networks

Inhibition plays many roles in cortical circuits, including coordination of network activity in different brain rhythms and neuronal clusters, gating of activity, gain control, and dictating the manner in which activity flows through the network. This latter is particularly relevant to epileptic states, when extreme hypersynchronous discharges can spread across cortical territories. We review these different physiological and pathological roles and discuss how inhibition can be compromised and why this predisposes the network to seizures.

Motor Learning and the Cerebellum

Although our ability to store semantic declarative information can nowadays be readily surpassed by that of simple personal computers, our ability to learn and express procedural memories still outperforms that of supercomputers controlling the most advanced robots. To a large extent, our procedural memories are formed in the cerebellum, which embodies more than two-thirds of all neurons in our brain. In this review, we will focus on the emerging view that different modules of the cerebellum use different encoding schemes to form and express their respective memories. More specifically, zebrin-positive zones in the cerebellum, such as those controlling adaptation of the vestibulo-ocular reflex, appear to predominantly form their memories by potentiation mechanisms and express their memories via rate coding, whereas zebrin-negative zones, such as those controlling eyeblink conditioning, appear to predominantly form their memories by suppression mechanisms and express their memories in part by temporal coding using rebound bursting. Together, the different types of modules offer a rich repertoire to acquire and control sensorimotor processes with specific challenges in the spatiotemporal domain.

Gain control through divisive inhibition prevents abrupt transition to chaos in a neural mass model

Experimental results suggest that there are two distinct mechanisms of inhibition in cortical neuronal networks: subtractive and divisive inhibition. They modulate the input-output function of their target neurons either by increasing the input that is needed to reach maximum output or by reducing the gain and the value of maximum output itself, respectively. However, the role of these mechanisms on the dynamics of the network is poorly understood. We introduce a novel population model and numerically investigate the influence of divisive inhibition on network dynamics. Specifically, we focus on the transitions from a state of regular oscillations to a state of chaotic dynamics via period-doubling bifurcations. The model with divisive inhibition exhibits a universal transition rate to chaos (Feigenbaum behavior). In contrast, in an equivalent model without divisive inhibition, transition rates to chaos are not bounded by the universal constant (non-Feigenbaum behavior). This non-Feigenbaum behavior, when only subtractive inhibition is present, is linked to the interaction of bifurcation curves in the parameter space. Indeed, searching the parameter space showed that such interactions are impossible when divisive inhibition is included. Therefore, divisive inhibition prevents non-Feigenbaum behavior and, consequently, any abrupt transition to chaos. The results suggest that the divisive inhibition in neuronal networks could play a crucial role in keeping the states of order and chaos well separated and in preventing the onset of pathological neural dynamics.

General features of the retinal connectome determine the computation of motion anticipation

Motion anticipation allows the visual system to compensate for the slow speed of phototransduction so that a moving object can be accurately located. This correction is already present in the signal that ganglion cells send from the retina but the biophysical mechanisms underlying this computation are not known. Here we demonstrate that motion anticipation is computed autonomously within the dendritic tree of each ganglion cell and relies on feedforward inhibition. The passive and non-linear interaction of excitatory and inhibitory synapses enables the somatic voltage to encode the actual position of a moving object instead of its delayed representation. General rather than specific features of the retinal connectome govern this computation: an excess of inhibitory inputs over excitatory, with both being randomly distributed, allows tracking of all directions of motion, while the average distance between inputs determines the object velocities that can be compensated for.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.06250.001

The retina is a structure at the back of the eye that converts light into nerve impulses, which are then processed in the brain to produce the images that we see. It normally takes about one-tenth of a second for the retina to send a signal to the brain after an object first moves into view. This is about the same time it takes a tennis ball to travel several meters during a tennis match, yet we are still able to see where the moving tennis ball is in real time. This is because a process called ‘motion anticipation’ is able to compensate for the delay in processing the position of a moving object. However, it was not known precisely how motion anticipation occurs.

Inside the retina, cells called photoreceptors detect light and ultimately send signals (via some intermediate cell types) to nerve cells known as retinal ganglion cells. These signals can either excite a retinal ganglion cell to cause it to send an electrical signal to the brain, or inhibit it, which temporarily prevents electrical activity. Each cell receives signals from several photoreceptors, which each connect to a different site along branch-like structures called dendrites that project out of the retinal ganglion cells.

Johnston and Lagnado have now investigated how motion anticipation occurs in the retina by using electrical recordings of the activity in the retinas of goldfish combined with computer simulations of this activity. This revealed inhibitory signals, sent from photoreceptors to retinal ganglion cells via a type of intermediate cell (called amacrine cells), play a key role in motion anticipation. The ability to track motion effectively in all directions requires more inhibitory signals to be sent to the dendrites of a retinal ganglion cell than excitatory signals. These two types of input must also be randomly distributed across the cell. Furthermore, it is the density of these input sites on a dendrite that determines how well the retina can compensate for the motion of a fast-moving object. The building blocks required for motion anticipation in the retina are also found in visual areas higher in the brain. Therefore, further work may reveal that higher visual areas also use this mechanism to predict the future location of moving objects.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.06250.002

Dendritic inhibition mediated by O-LM and bistratified interneurons in the hippocampus

In the CA1 region of the hippocampus pyramidal neurons and GABAergic interneurons form local microcircuits. CA1 interneurons are a diverse group consisting of many subtypes, some of which provide compartment-specific inhibition specifically onto pyramidal neuron dendrites. In fact, the majority of inhibitory synapses on pyramidal neurons is found on their dendrites. The specific role of a dendrite-innervating interneuron subtype is primarily determined by its innervation pattern on the distinct dendritic domains of pyramidal neurons. The efficacy of dendritic inhibition in reducing dendritic excitation depends on the relative timing and location of the activated excitatory and inhibitory synapses. In vivo, synaptic properties such as short-term plasticity and neuro-modulation by the basal forebrain, govern the degree of inhibition in distinct dendritic domains in a dynamic, behavior dependent manner, specifically during network oscillation such as the theta rhythm. In this review we focus on two subtypes of dendrite-innervating interneurons: the oriens-lacunosum moleculare (O-LM) interneuron and the bistratified interneuron. Their molecular marker profile, morphology, and function in vivo and in vitro are well studied. We strive to integrate this diverse information from the cellular to the network level, and to provide insight into how the different characteristics of O-LM and bistratified interneurons affect dendritic excitability, network activity, and behavior.

Synaptic biology of barrel cortex circuit assembly

Mature neuronal circuits arise from the coordinated interplay of cell-intrinsic differentiation programs, target-derived signals and activity-dependent processes. Typically, cell-intrinsic mechanisms predominate at early stages of differentiation, while input-dependent processes modulate circuit formation at later stages of development. The whisker barrel cortex of rodents is particularly well suited to study this latter phase. During the first few days after birth, thalamocortical axons (TCA) from the somatosensory ventral posteromedial nucleus (VPM) form synapses onto layer 4 (L4) neurons, which aggregate to form barrels, whose spatial organization corresponds to the distribution of the whiskers on the snout. Besides specific genetic programs, which control TCA and L4 neuron specification, the establishment of the barrel pattern also depends on the information resulting from whisker activation. The plasticity of this system during the first few days after birth is critical for barrel formation: damage to the sensory periphery impairs TCA patterning, while lesions after this period have less pronounced effects. Here, we will review the role and position of L4 neurons within cortical columnar circuits and synaptogenesis during barrel formation.

An Augmented Two-Layer Model Captures Nonlinear Analog Spatial Integration Effects in Pyramidal Neuron Dendrites

In pursuit of the goal to understand and eventually reproduce the diverse functions of the brain, a key challenge lies in reverse engineering the peculiar biology-based "technology" that underlies the brain's remarkable ability to process and store information. The basic building block of the nervous system is the nerve cell, or "neuron," yet after more than 100 years of neurophysiological study and 60 years of modeling, the information processing functions of individual neurons, and the parameters that allow them to engage in so many different types of computation (sensory, motor, mnemonic, executive, etc.) remain poorly understood. In this paper, we review both historical and recent findings that have led to our current understanding of the analog spatial processing capabilities of dendrites, the major input structures of neurons, with a focus on the principal cell type of the neocortex and hippocampus, the pyramidal neuron (PN). We encapsulate our current understanding of PN dendritic integration in an abstract layered model whose spatially sensitive branch-subunits compute multidimensional sigmoidal functions. Unlike the 1-D sigmoids found in conventional neural network models, multidimensional sigmoids allow the cell to implement a rich spectrum of nonlinear modulation effects directly within their dendritic trees.

GABAergic synapses: their plasticity and role in sensory cortex

The mammalian neocortex is composed of a variety of cell types organized in a highly interconnected circuit. GABAergic neurons account for only about 20% of cortical neurons. However, they show widespread connectivity and a high degree of diversity in morphology, location, electrophysiological properties and gene expression. In addition, distinct populations of inhibitory neurons have different sensory response properties, capacities for plasticity and sensitivities to changes in sensory experience. In this review we summarize experimental evidence regarding the properties of GABAergic neurons in primary sensory cortex. We will discuss how distinct GABAergic neurons and different forms of GABAergic inhibitory plasticity may contribute to shaping sensory cortical circuit activity and function.