Alkylating potential ofN-phenyl-N-nitrosourea

DNA-damaging disinfection byproducts: alkylation mechanism of mutagenic mucohalic acids

Hydroxyhalofuranones form a group of genotoxic disinfection byproduct (DBP) of increasing interest. Among them, mucohalic acids (3,4-dihalo-5-hydroxyfuran-2(5H)-one, MXA) are known mutagens that react with nucleotides, affording etheno, oxaloetheno, and halopropenal derivatives. Mucohalic acids have also found use in organic synthesis due to their high functionalization. In this work, the alkylation kinetics of mucochloric and mucobromic acids with model nucleophiles aniline and NBP has been studied experimentally. Also, the alkylation mechanism of nucleosides by MXA has been studied in silico. The results described allow us to reach the following conclusions: (i) based on the kinetic and computational evidence obtained, a reaction mechanism was proposed, in which MXA react directly with amino groups in nucleotides, preferentially attacking the exocyclic amino groups over the endocyclic aromatic nitrogen atoms; (ii) the suggested mechanism is in agreement with both the product distribution observed experimentally and the mutational pattern of MXA; (iii) the limiting step in the alkylation reaction is addition to the carbonyl group, subsequent steps occurring rapidly; and (iv) mucoxyhalic acids, the hydrolysis products of MXA, play no role in the alkylation reaction by MXA.

Alkylating potential of α,β-unsaturated compounds

Alkylation reactions of the nucleoside guanosine (Guo) by the α,β-unsaturated compounds (α,β-UC) acrylonitrile (AN), acrylamide (AM), acrylic acid (AA) and acrolein (AC), which can act as alkylating agents of DNA, were investigated kinetically. The following conclusions were drawn: i) The Guo alkylation mechanism by AC is different from those brought about the other α,β-UC; ii) for the first three, the following sequence of alkylating potential was found: AN > AM > AA; iii) A correlation between the chemical reactivity (alkylation rate constants) of AN, AM, and AA and their capacity to form adducts with biomarkers was found. iv) Guo alkylation reactions for AN and AM occur through Michael addition mechanisms, reversible in the first case, and irreversible in the second. The equilibrium constant for the formation of the Guo-AN adduct is K(eq) (37 °C) = 5 × 10(-4); v) The low energy barrier (≈10 kJ mol(-1)) to reverse the Guo alkylation by AN reflects the easy reversibility of this reaction and its possible correction by repair mechanisms; vi) No reaction was observed for AN, AM, and AA at pH < 8.0. In contrast, Guo alkylation by AC was observed under cellular pH conditions. The reaction rate constants for the formation of the α-OH-Guo adduct (the most genotoxic isomer), is 1.5-fold faster than that of γ-OH-Guo. vii) a correlation between the chemical reactivity of α,β-UC (alkylation rate constants) and mutagenicity was found.

Alkylating potential of oxetanes

Small, highly strained heterocycles are archetypical alkylating agents (oxiranes, beta-lactones, aziridinium, and thiirinium ions). Oxetanes, which are tetragonal ethers, are higher homologues of oxiranes and reduced counterparts of beta-lactones, and would therefore be expected to be active alkylating agents. Oxetanes are widely used in the manufacture of polymers, especially in organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs), and are present, as a substructure, in compounds such as the widely used antimitotic taxol. Whereas the results of animal tests suggest that trimethylene oxide (TMO), the parent compound, and beta,beta-dimethyloxetane (DMOX) are active carcinogens at the site of injection, no studies have explored the alkylating ability and genotoxicity of oxetanes. This work addresses the issue using a mixed methodology: a kinetic study of the alkylation reaction of 4-(p-nitrobenzyl)pyridine (NBP), a trap for alkylating agents with nucleophilicity similar to that of DNA bases, by three oxetanes (TMO, DMOX, and methyloxetanemethanol), and a mutagenicity, genotoxicity, and cell viability study (Salmonella microsome test, BTC E. coli test, alkaline comet assay, and MTT assay). The results suggest either that oxetanes lack genotoxic capacity or that their mode of action is very different from that of epoxides and beta-lactones.