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Denis EH, Morrison KA, Wharton S, Phillips S, Myers SC, Foxe MP, Ewing RG. Trace explosive residue detection of HMX and RDX in post-detonation dust from an open-air environment. Talanta 2021; 227:122124. [PMID: 33714459 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Explosives are often used in industry, geology, mining, and other applications, but it is not always clear what remains after a detonation or the fate and transport of any residual material. The goal of this study was to determine to what extent intact molecules of high explosive (HE) compounds are detectable and quantifiable from post-detonation dust and particulates in a field experiment with varied topography. We focused on HMX (1,3,5,7-Tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocane), which is less studied in field detonation literature, as the primary explosive material and RDX (1,3,5-Trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine) as the secondary material. The experiment was conducted at Site 300, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory's Experimental Test Site, in California, USA. Two 20.4 kg and one 40.8 kg above ground explosions (primarily comprised of LX-14, an HMX-based polymer-bonded high explosive) were detonated on an open-air firing area on separate days. The complex terrain of the firing area (e.g., buildings, berm, low-height obstacles) was advantageous to study HE deposition in relation to plume dynamics. Three types of samples were collected up to 100 m away from each shot: surface swipes of aluminum plates, surface swipes of fixed objects, and filters from air samples. We used atmospheric flow tube-mass spectrometry (AFT-MS) to quantify picogram levels of molecular residue of HE material in the post-detonation dust. An aliquot of sample extract in methanol (e.g., 1 μL of 0.5 mL) was placed onto a resistive material and then thermally desorbed into the AFT-MS. We successfully detected and quantified both HMX and RDX in many of the samples. Based on mass (pg) detected and solution dilution, we back-calculated the mass collected on the swipe or filter (ng per sample). The aerial distribution of molecular residue was consistent with the path of the plume, which was strongly determined by wind speed and direction at the time of each shot. The quantity of material detected appeared to correlate more with distance from the shot and the wind conditions than with shot size. This study demonstrates that the picogram detection levels of AFT-MS are well-suited for quantification of analytes (e.g., HMX and RDX) in environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Sonia Wharton
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA.
| | - Shane Phillips
- Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, USA.
| | | | - Michael P Foxe
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA.
| | - Robert G Ewing
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA.
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2
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Nikolaev V, Sladkevich S, Divina U, Prikhodchenko PV, Gasser G, Falciola L, Longhi M, Lev O. LC-MS analysis of nitroguanidine compounds by catalytic reduction using palladium modified graphitic carbon nitride catalyst. Mikrochim Acta 2021; 188:152. [PMID: 33813615 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-021-04814-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The analysis of compounds of the nitroguanidine family at trace level poses an analytical challenge. Nitroguanidine, 1-methyl-3-nitroguanidine, and 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine, which are addressed in this article, have low lipophilicity, with log(Kow) equal to -0.89, - 0.84, and 0.68, respectively, and as such are not amenable for preconcentration from water. Liquid-liquid extraction and SPE fail to concentrate them from water and it is also not possible to extract them by ion exchange resin even after a pH change. Nitroguanidine and 1-methyl-3-nitroguanidine nitramines are explosives of growing use and thereby growing environmental concern due to lower detonation sensitivity compared to RDX. A sensitive method for the determination of nitroguanidine, 1-methyl-3-nitroguanidine, and 1-methyl-3-nitroso-1-nitroguanidine by reduction to the respective amines and subsequent hydrophobization by derivatization with 4-nitrobenzaldehyde followed by LC-ESI-MS analysis is described. Reduction by sodium borohydride using palladium modified graphitic carbon nitride (Pd/g-C3N4) provided improved sensitivity compared to the traditional palladium modified activated carbon due to the lower adsorption of the reduction products on the carbon nitride substrate. The limit of detection of the method was 10 ng L-1 for nitroguanidine, and repeated analyses of spiked effluents and contaminated spring water gave relative standard deviations of 8.8% and 6.5%, respectively. The findings illuminate the great promise of Pd/g-C3N4 as a reduction catalyst for the determination of challenging hydrophilic organic contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitaly Nikolaev
- The Institute Chemistry, The Casali Center of Applied Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Sergey Sladkevich
- The Institute Chemistry, The Casali Center of Applied Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Uliana Divina
- The Institute Chemistry, The Casali Center of Applied Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Petr V Prikhodchenko
- Kurnakov Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninskii prosp. 31, Moscow, 119991, Russia
| | - Guy Gasser
- The Institute Chemistry, The Casali Center of Applied Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel.,Water Monitoring Laboratory, Israel Water Authority, 7528809, Rishon Lezion, Israel
| | - Luigi Falciola
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Golgi 19, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Mariangela Longhi
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Golgi 19, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | - Ovadia Lev
- The Institute Chemistry, The Casali Center of Applied Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Edmond J. Safra Campus, 9190401, Jerusalem, Israel.
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Aurell J, Holder AL, Gullett BK, McNesby K, Weinstein JP. Characterization of M4 carbine rifle emissions with three ammunition types. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 254:112982. [PMID: 31554143 PMCID: PMC7369134 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.112982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Muzzle emissions from firing an M4 carbine rifle in a semi-enclosed chamber were characterized for an array of compounds to provide quantitative data for future studies on potential inhalation exposure and rangeland contamination. Air emissions were characterized for particulate matter (PM) size distribution, composition, and morphology; carbon monoxide (CO); carbon dioxide (CO2); energetics; metals; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons; and methane. Three types of ammunition were used: a "Legacy" (Vietnam-era) round, the common M855 round (no longer fielded), and its variant, an M855 round with added potassium (K)-based salts to reduce muzzle flash. Average CO concentrations up to 1500 ppm significantly exceeded CO2 concentrations. Emitted particles were in the respirable size range with mass median diameters between 0.33 and 0.58 μm. PM emissions were highest from the M855 salt-added ammunition, likely due to incomplete secondary combustion in the muzzle blast caused by scavenging of combustion radicals by the K salt. Copper (Cu) had the highest emitted metal concentration for all three round formulations, likely originating from the Cu jacket on the bullet. Based on a mass balance analysis of each round's formulation, lead (Pb) was completely emitted for all three round types. This work demonstrated methods for characterizing emissions from gun firing which can distinguish between round-specific effects and can be used to initiate studies of inhalation risk and environmental deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna Aurell
- University of Dayton Research Institute, 300 College Park, Dayton, OH 45469, USA
| | - Amara L Holder
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory (E343-04), Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - Brian K Gullett
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory (E343-04), Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA.
| | - Kevin McNesby
- U.S. Army Research Laboratory, 2800 Powder Mill Rd, Adelphi, MD 20783, USA
| | - Jason P Weinstein
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory (E343-04), Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
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Wang J, Yang L, Zheng W, Zhang J. Study on Comparative Performance of CL‐20/RDX‐based CMDB Propellants. PROPELLANTS EXPLOSIVES PYROTECHNICS 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/prep.201900029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiangning Wang
- Corresponding Author: Jiangning Wang Xi'an Modern Chemistry Research Institute Xi'an, Shanxi 710065 P.R. China
| | - Lilong Yang
- Corresponding Author: Jiangning Wang Xi'an Modern Chemistry Research Institute Xi'an, Shanxi 710065 P.R. China
| | - Wei Zheng
- Corresponding Author: Jiangning Wang Xi'an Modern Chemistry Research Institute Xi'an, Shanxi 710065 P.R. China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Corresponding Author: Jiangning Wang Xi'an Modern Chemistry Research Institute Xi'an, Shanxi 710065 P.R. China
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5
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Kuo DTF, Simini M, Allen HE. Sorption and desorption kinetics of nitroglycerin and 2,4-dinitrotoluene in nitrocellulose and implications for residue-bound energetic materials. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 128:138-147. [PMID: 29091804 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.10.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Revised: 10/23/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Energetic materials (EMs) bound to propellant residues can contribute to environmental risk and public health concerns. This work investigated how nitrocellulose, a common binding material in propellants, may control the release dynamics of nitroglycerin (NG) and 2,4-dinitrotoluene (2,4-DNT) from propellant residues. Batch adsorption/desorption experiments on nitrocellulose and re-interpretation on results from past leaching studies involving propellant-bound EMs were conducted. Mechanistic modeling of adsorption/desorption kinetics based on intra-particle diffusion (IPD) predicted aqueous intrinsic diffusivities (Diw) to within a factor of 2 of expected values. Furthermore, the IPD model was able to predict effective diffusivities (Deff) during the early leaching of NG from propellant residues to within a factor of 2 over a 3-log unit range. Prediction of leaching Deff's associated with fired residues was less successful probably due to the neglect of compositional and morphological heterogeneity within the residues. Close correlations were found between the early and late Deff's of residue-bound NG and between the fast- and slow-domain rate constants for both EMs, suggesting that the late leaching kinetics of bound-EMs may be empirically assessed from the early kinetics. This work illustrates that, in addition to dissolution, retarded diffusion through nitrocellulose matrix may also limit the overall release and transformation of residue-bound EMs in the field. Implications and limitations of the current study, and the steps forward are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dave T F Kuo
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon City, Hong Kong; City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, 518057, China.
| | - Michael Simini
- US Army Edgewood Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD, USA
| | - Herbert E Allen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
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6
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Voloshenko Rossin A, Sladkevich S, Gasser G, Melman A, Lev O. Sensitive Analysis of Nitroguanidine in Aqueous and Soil Matrices by LC-MS. Anal Chem 2017; 89:9990-9996. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b02364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Voloshenko Rossin
- The
Casali Center, The Institute of Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem,
Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Sergey Sladkevich
- The
Casali Center, The Institute of Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem,
Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Guy Gasser
- The
Casali Center, The Institute of Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem,
Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
| | - Artem Melman
- Department
of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson
Ave., Potsdam, New York 13699-5810, United States
| | - Ovadia Lev
- The
Casali Center, The Institute of Chemistry, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem,
Edmond J. Safra Campus, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
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Walsh MR, Temple T, Bigl MF, Tshabalala SF, Mai N, Ladyman M. Investigation of Energetic Particle Distribution from High-Order Detonations of Munitions. PROPELLANTS EXPLOSIVES PYROTECHNICS 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/prep.201700089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael R. Walsh
- US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory; 72 Lyme Road Hanover, New Hampshire 03755 USA
| | - Tracey Temple
- Center for Defence Chemistry; Cranfield University; Defence Academy of the UK; SN6 8LA
| | - Matthew F. Bigl
- US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory; 72 Lyme Road Hanover, New Hampshire 03755 USA
| | - Seipati F. Tshabalala
- Center for Defence Chemistry; Cranfield University; Defence Academy of the UK; SN6 8LA
| | - Nathalie Mai
- Center for Defence Chemistry; Cranfield University; Defence Academy of the UK; SN6 8LA
| | - Melissa Ladyman
- Center for Defence Chemistry; Cranfield University; Defence Academy of the UK; SN6 8LA
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8
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Comparative Study of 9×19 mm Ammunition Combustion Products and Residues. PROPELLANTS EXPLOSIVES PYROTECHNICS 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/prep.201500149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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Walsh MR, Walsh ME, Ramsey CA, Brochu S, Thiboutot S, Ampleman G. Perchlorate contamination from the detonation of insensitive high-explosive rounds. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2013; 262:228-233. [PMID: 24035798 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.08.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The insensitive high-explosive PAX-21 was the first of its kind fielded in an artillery munition by the United States military. This formulation contains three main components: RDX, dinitroanisole, and ammonium perchlorate (AP). In March 2012, detonation tests were conducted on PAX-21 60mm mortar rounds to determine the energetic residues resulting from high-order and blow-in-place (BIP) detonations. Post-detonation residues were sampled and analyzed for the three main PAX-21 components. Concentrations of RDX and dinitroanisole in the samples were quite low, less than 0.1% of the munitions' original organic explosive filler mass, indicating high order or near high order detonations. However, disproportionately high concentrations of AP occurred in all residues. The residues averaged 15% of the original AP following high-order detonations and 38% of the original AP mass following the BIP operations. There was no correlation between AP residues and the RDX and dinitroanisole. Perchlorate readily leached from the detonation residues, with over 99% contained in the aqueous portion of the samples. Use of these rounds will result in billions of liters of water contaminated above drinking water perchlorate limits. As a result of this research, PAX-21 mortar rounds are currently restricted from use on US training ranges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Walsh
- US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 72 Lyme Road, Hanover, NH, USA.
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Energetic Residues from the Detonation of IMX-104 Insensitive Munitions. PROPELLANTS EXPLOSIVES PYROTECHNICS 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/prep.201300095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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11
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Walsh MR, Walsh ME, Taylor S, Ramsey CA, Ringelberg DB, Zufelt JE, Thiboutot S, Ampleman G, Diaz E. Characterization of PAX-21 Insensitive Munition Detonation Residues. PROPELLANTS EXPLOSIVES PYROTECHNICS 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/prep.201200150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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12
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Bordeleau G, Martel R, Ampleman G, Thiboutot S, Poulin I. The fate and transport of nitroglycerin in the unsaturated zone at active and legacy anti-tank firing positions. JOURNAL OF CONTAMINANT HYDROLOGY 2012; 142-143:11-21. [PMID: 23047138 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2012.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Revised: 08/21/2012] [Accepted: 09/04/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The environmental fate of nitroglycerin (NG) in the unsaturated zone was evaluated in the context of double-base propellant residue deposition at anti-tank training ranges. Fresh propellant residues were collected during live anti-tank training. Surface soils, sub-surface soils and water samples from the unsaturated zone were collected at an active anti-tank range, and at a legacy site where NG-based propellants have been used. Results show that the residues are composed of intact propellant particles, as well as small quantities of NG, dinitroglycerin (DNG) and nitrate which are rapidly dissolved by precipitation, resulting in sporadic pulses of those compounds in water from the unsaturated zone after rain/snow melt events. The dissolved NG and DNG can be progressively degraded in the unsaturated zone, releasing nitrate as an end-product. Over a period of several years, small propellant particles located at the soil surface can be carried downward through the soil pore system by infiltration water, which explains the presence of NG in sub-surface soils at the legacy site, more than 35 years after site closure. NG is no longer leached from these old particles, therefore the detection of NG in sub-surface soils does not signify that groundwater is at risk of contamination by NG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geneviève Bordeleau
- Institut National de la Recherche Scientifique, Centre Eau, Terre et Environnement, 490 de la Couronne, Quebec City, Qc, Canada.
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