The pharmaceutical excipient PEG400 affect the absorption of baicalein in Caco-2 monolayer model by interacting with UDP-glucuronosyltransferases and efflux transport proteins

Proteomics Profiling Reveals Pharmaceutical Excipient PEG400 Induces Nuclear-Receptor-Activation-Affected Lipid Metabolism and Metabolic Enzyme Expression

PEG400 is widely used as a pharmaceutical excipient in the biomedical field. Increasing evidence suggests that PEG400 is not an inert drug carrier; it can influence the activity of various drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters, thereby affecting the in vivo process of drugs. It can also alleviate obesity and adipose tissue inflammation induced by a high-fat diet. In this study, we employed proteomics to investigate the impact of PEG400 on hepatic protein expression in rats. We found that over 40 metabolic enzymes were altered, with UDP-glucuronosyltransferase 1a9 (Ugt1a9) showing the most significant upregulation. This observation is consistent with our previous findings. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed that PEG400 influences retinol metabolism, steroid hormone biosynthesis, drug metabolism, bile secretion, fatty acid degradation, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling pathway, and pentose and glucuronate interconversions. Western blot and molecular docking were used to quantitatively analyze related proteins. The results demonstrated that PEG400 promotes the metabolism of retinol to produce retinoic acid; enhances bile secretion by upregulating bile acid synthesis and transporter proteins; and activates the PPARα signaling pathway to regulate the expression of fat metabolism-related proteins, thereby reducing lipid accumulation. Furthermore, as natural ligands for nuclear receptors, retinoic acid and bile acids may activate nuclear receptors and initiate the regulation of target gene expression. We found upregulation of the nuclear receptors PPARα, retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRα), and pregnane X receptor (PXR). RXRα can form a dimer with PPARα or PXR to regulate the expression of target genes, which may explain the changes in the expression of numerous metabolic enzymes. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the effects of PEG400 on liver metabolism in rats, reveals its potential biological functions, and offers new insights into the application and development of PEG400.

Enhancement of in vitro transcellular absorption and in vivo oral bioavailability of apigenin by self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems

This study aims to develop a self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) to solve the limited oral bioavailability problem of apigenin, a bioactive flavonoid. Apigenin-loaded SNEDDS consisting of Gelucire 44/14, Tween 80, and PEG 400 in the mass ratios of 25:37.5:37.5 and 30:35:35 were prepared, and designated as GTP2575 and GTP3070, respectively. The physicochemical stability at 30 and 40 ºC for 6 months was evaluated and a good stability was found. The in vitro transport of apigenin across Caco-2 monolayers from the SNEDDS and the in vivo pharmacokinetics in rats were investigated and compared with apigenin intact form. The in vitro permeation results demonstrated an increased transcellular permeability compared to the apigenin coarse powder (p < 0.05), while there was comparable permeation of apigenin in GTP2575 and GTP3070 formulations, with the permeability constants (Papp) being 2.97 × 10-5 and 3.13 × 10-5, respectively (p > 0.05). The pharmacokinetic analysis in rats revealed that the pharmacokinetic parameters, such as Cmax, AUC0-24, and AUC0-∞, were significantly higher with apigenin-loaded SNEDDS than with apigenin coarse powder (p < 0.05). Apigenin's oral relative bioavailability increased by 3.8 and 3.3 times for GTP2575 and GTP3070, respectively, due to SNEDDS's effect on solubilization and transcellular permeability. The in vivo acute oral toxicity according to OECD 425 was evaluated and revealed low toxicity with an LD50 exceeding 2,000 mg/kg in all apigenin's formulations. These findings suggest that apigenin-loaded SNEDDS may represent a promising strategy for improving the oral delivery of apigenin.

Effects of Commonly used Surfactants, Poloxamer 188 and Tween 80, on the Drug Transport Capacity of Intestinal Glucose Transporters

Some glycoside drugs can be transported through intestinal glucose transporters (IGTs). The surfactants used in oral drug preparations can affect the function of transporter proteins. This study aimed to investigate the effect of commonly used surfactants, Poloxamer 188 and Tween 80, on the drug transport capacity of IGTs. Previous studies have shown that gastrodin is the optimal drug substrate for IGTs. Gastrodin was used as a probe drug to evaluate the effect of these two surfactants on intestinal absorption in SD rats through pharmacokinetic and in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion. Then, the effects of the two surfactants on the expression of glucose transporters and tight-junction proteins were examined using RT-PCR and western blotting. Additionally, the effect of surfactants on intestinal permeability was evaluated through hematoxylin-eosin staining. The results found that all experimental for Poloxamer 188 (0.5%, 2.0% and 8.0%) and Tween 80 (0.1% and 2.0%) were not significantly different from those of the blank group. However, the AUC(0-∞) of gastrodin increased by approximately 32% when 0.5% Tween 80 was used. The changes in IGT expression correlated with the intestinal absorption of gastrodin. A significant increase in the expression of IGTs was observed at 0.5% Tween 80. In conclusion, Poloxamer 188 had minimal effect on the drug transport capacity of IGTs within the recommended limits of use. However, the expression of IGTs increased in response to 0.5% Tween 80, which significantly enhanced the drug transport capacity of IGTs. However, 0.1% and 2.0% Tween 80 had no significant effect.

Study on the Effect of Pharmaceutical Excipient PEG400 on the Pharmacokinetics of Baicalin in Cells Based on MRP2, MRP3, and BCRP Efflux Transporters

Pharmaceutical excipient PEG400 is a common component of traditional Chinese medicine compound preparations. Studies have demonstrated that pharmaceutical excipients can directly or indirectly influence the disposition process of active drugs in vivo, thereby affecting the bioavailability of drugs. In order to reveal the pharmacokinetic effect of PEG400 on baicalin in hepatocytes and its mechanism, the present study first started with the effect of PEG400 on the metabolic disposition of baicalin at the hepatocyte level, and then the effect of PEG400 on the protein expression of baicalin-related transporters (BCRP, MRP2, and MRP3) was investigated by using western blot; the effect of MDCKII-BCRP, MDCKII-BCRP, MRP2, and MRP3 was investigated by using MDCKII-BCRP, MDCKII-MRP2, and MDCKII-MRP3 cell monolayer models, and membrane vesicles overexpressing specific transporter proteins (BCRP, MRP2, and MRP3), combined with the exocytosis of transporter-specific inhibitors, were used to study the effects of PEG400 on the transporters in order to explore the possible mechanisms of its action. The results demonstrated that PEG400 significantly influenced the concentration of baicalin in hepatocytes, and the AUC0-t of baicalin increased from 75.96 ± 2.57 μg·h/mL to 106.94 ± 2.22 μg·h/mL, 111.97 ± 3.98 μg·h/mL, and 130.42 ± 5.26 μg·h/mL (p ˂ 0.05). Furthermore, the efflux rate of baicalin was significantly reduced in the vesicular transport assay and the MDCKII cell model transport assay, which indicated that PEG400 had a significant inhibitory effect on the corresponding transporters. In conclusion, PEG400 can improve the bioavailability of baicalin to some extent by affecting the efflux transporters and thus the metabolic disposition of baicalin in the liver.

Anti-hypertensive and composition as well as pharmacokinetics and tissues distribution of active ingredients from Alpinia zerumbet

Alpinia zerumbet is a food flavor additive and a traditional medicine herb around the world. Several studies have reported that A. zerumbet has excellent effects on a variety of cardiovascular diseases, but its potential hypertensive applications, and pharmacokinetic features of main active substances have not been fully investigated. The mechanism of anti-hypertension with ethyl acetate extracts of A. zerumbet fruits (AZEAE) was evaluated by L-NNA-induced hypertensive rats and L-NAME-injured human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Blood pressure, echocardiographic cardiac index and H&E staining were used to preliminary evaluate the antihypertensive effect of AZEAE, the levels of TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β were evaluated by ELISA, and the proteins expression of IL-1β, IL-18, AGTR1, VCAM, iNOS, EDN1 and eNOS were also evaluated. In addition, isolation, identification, and activity screening of bioactive compounds were carried ou. Next, pharmacokinetics and tissues distribution of dihydro-5,6-dehydrokavain (DDK) in vivo were measured, and preliminary absorption mechanism was conducted with Caco-2 cell monolayers. AZEAE remarkably enhanced the state of hypertensive rats. Twelve compounds were isolated and identified, and five compounds were isolated from this plant for the first time. The isolated compounds also exhibited good resistance against injury of HUVECs. Moreover, pharmacokinetics and Caco-2 cell monolayers demonstrated AZEAE had better absorption capacity than DDK, and DDK exhibited differences in tissues distribution and gender difference. This study was the first to assess the potential hypertensive applications of A. zerumbet in vivo and vitro, and the first direct and concise study of the in vivo behavior of DDK and AZEAE.

Detrimental Impacts of Pharmaceutical Excipient PEG400 on Gut Microbiota and Metabolome in Healthy Mice

Polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG400) is a widely used pharmaceutical excipient in the field of medicine. It not only enhances the dispersion stability of the main drug but also facilitates the absorption of multiple drugs. Our previous study found that the long-term application of PEG400 as an adjuvant in traditional Chinese medicine preparations resulted in wasting and weight loss in animals, which aroused our concern. In this study, 16S rRNA high-throughput sequencing technology was used to analyze the diversity of gut microbiota, and LC-MS/MS Q-Exactive Orbtriap metabolomics technology was used to analyze the effect of PEG400 on the metabolome of healthy mice, combined with intestinal pathological analysis, aiming to investigate the effects of PEG400 on healthy mice. These results showed that PEG400 significantly altered the structure of gut microbiota, reduced the richness and diversity of intestinal flora, greatly increased the abundance of Akkermansia muciniphila (A. muciniphila), increased the proportion of Bacteroidetes to Firmicutes, and reduced the abundance of many beneficial bacteria. Moreover, PEG400 changed the characteristics of fecal metabolome in mice and induced disorders in lipid and energy metabolism, thus leading to diarrhea, weight loss, and intestinal inflammation in mice. Collectively, these findings provide new evidence for the potential effect of PEG400 ingestion on a healthy host.

Predictive Potential of BCS and Pharmacokinetic Parameters on Study Outcome: Analysis of 198 In Vivo Bioequivalence Studies

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Understanding predictive potential of parameters to perform early bioequivalence (BE) risk assessment is crucial for good planning and risk mitigation during product development. The objective of the present study was to evaluate predictive potential of various biopharmaceutical and pharmacokinetic parameters on the outcome of BE study.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis was performed on 198 Sandoz (Lek Pharmaceuticals d.d., A Sandoz Company, Verovskova 57, 1526 Ljubljana, Slovenia) sponsored BE studies [52 active pharmaceutical ingredients (API)] where characteristics of BE study and APIs were collected for immediate-release products and their predictive potential on the study outcome was assessed using univariate statistical analysis.

RESULTS

Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) was confirmed to be highly predictive of BE success. BE studies with poorly soluble APIs were riskier (23% non-BE) than with highly soluble APIs (0.1% non-BE). APIs with either lower bioavailability (BA), presence of first-pass metabolism, and/or being substrate for P-glycoprotein substrate (P-gP) were associated with higher non-BE occurrence. In silico permeability and time at peak plasma concentrations (Tmax) were shown as potentially relevant features for predicting BE outcome. In addition, our analysis showed significantly higher occurrence of non-BE results for poorly soluble APIs with disposition described by multicompartment model. The conclusions for poorly soluble APIs were the same on a subset of fasting BE studies; for a subset of fed studies there were no significant differences between factors in BE and non-BE groups.

CONCLUSION

Understanding the association of parameters and BE outcome is important for further development of early BE risk assessment tools where focus should be first in finding additional parameters to differentiate BE risk within a group of poorly soluble APIs.