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Mechanistic Insights into the Pharmacological Significance of Silymarin. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27165327. [PMID: 36014565 PMCID: PMC9414257 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27165327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Medicinal plants are considered the reservoir of diverse therapeutic agents and have been traditionally employed worldwide to heal various ailments for several decades. Silymarin is a plant-derived mixture of polyphenolic flavonoids originating from the fruits and akenes of Silybum marianum and contains three flavonolignans, silibinins (silybins), silychristin and silydianin, along with taxifolin. Silybins are the major constituents in silymarin with almost 70–80% abundance and are accountable for most of the observed therapeutic activity. Silymarin has also been acknowledged from the ancient period and is utilized in European and Asian systems of traditional medicine for treating various liver disorders. The contemporary literature reveals that silymarin is employed significantly as a neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, anti-viral, anti-hypertensive, immunomodulator, anti-inflammatory, photoprotective and detoxification agent by targeting various cellular and molecular pathways, including MAPK, mTOR, β-catenin and Akt, different receptors and growth factors, as well as inhibiting numerous enzymes and the gene expression of several apoptotic proteins and inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, the current review aims to recapitulate and update the existing knowledge regarding the pharmacological potential of silymarin as evidenced by vast cellular, animal, and clinical studies, with a particular emphasis on its mechanisms of action.
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Wang J, Zhang L, Cao H, Shi X, Zhang X, Gao Z, Ikeda K, Yan T, Jia Y, Xu F. Silibinin improves L-cell mass and function through an estrogen receptor-mediated antioxidative mechanism. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 99:154022. [PMID: 35255283 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2022.154022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Silibinin, a major component of milk thistle extract silymarin, promotes hypoglycemia by activating estrogen receptor (ER) α and β-mediated pathways in pancreatic β-cells. Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) is the enteroendocrine peptide produced in L-cells, and it controls glucose homeostasis through multiple pathways. The effect of silibinin on L-cell mass and function is still unknown. PURPOSE The protective effect of silibinin on palmitate (PA)-treated intestinal L-cell line GLUTag cells and the SHRSP•Z-Leprfa/Izm-Dmcr (SP•ZF) diabetic rat model was investigated in current study. METHODS After pre-incubation with 50 μM silibinin for 4 h, GLUTag cells were treated with 0.125 mM PA. MTT, Annexin V/PI apoptosis, Hoechst 33342 staining, western blot, DCFH-DA, GLP-1 ELISA, qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence analyses were undertaken to determine ER-dependent protection of silibinin against PA-induced cellular damage. The differential protein expression of GLUTag cells under different treatments was examined by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry (MS). The SP•ZF diabetic rat model was chosen for in vivo study. After 4 weeks of gastric gavage with 100 or 300 mg kg-1 of silibinin, the physiological indexes of the rats were measured. Cells expressing GLP-1, 8‑hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), ERα, and/or ERβ in duodenum tissues were detected by immunofluorescence. RESULTS The current study showed that the GLUTag cells preincubated with silibinin activated the transcription factor nuclear erythroid-2 like factor-2 (Nrf2)-antioxidant pathway, reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and improved cell survival and GLP-1 content, while the antioxidative effect of silibinin was blocked by the selective ERα antagonist MPP or ERβ antagonist PHTPP in GLUTag cells. Our proteomics data further revealed that ERα or β inactivation reduced glutathione peroxide and proteins associated with endocytosis and reproduction, thus at least partially reversing the protective effect of silibinin. SP•ZF rats received silibinin treatment showed increased serum GLP-1 content and improved glucose homeostasis. Furthermore, silibinin upregulated ERα and β levels and reduced the level of 8-OHdG in GLP-1-positive cells. CONCLUSIONS Our study showed that silibinin improved L-cell mass and function through an ER-mediated antioxidant pathway, and the proteomics analysis revealed for the first time the differential regulation of proteins by PA and silibinin in GLUTag cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyu Wang
- Faculty of Functional Food and Wine, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, P.R. China
| | - Luxin Zhang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, P.R. China
| | - Hao Cao
- School of Life Science and Bio-pharmaceutics, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, P.R. China; School of Medicine, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, P.R. China
| | - Xinyi Shi
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, P.R. China
| | - Xiaorong Zhang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, P.R. China
| | - Zihao Gao
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, P.R. China
| | - Katsumi Ikeda
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mukogawa Women's University, Nishinomiya 663-8179, Japan
| | - Tingxu Yan
- Faculty of Functional Food and Wine, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, P.R. China
| | - Ying Jia
- Faculty of Functional Food and Wine, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, P.R. China.
| | - Fanxing Xu
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, P.R. China.
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Yang J, Sun Y, Xu F, Liu W, Hayashi T, Mizuno K, Hattori S, Fujisaki H, Ikejima T. Autophagy and glycolysis independently attenuate silibinin-induced apoptosis in human hepatocarcinoma HepG2 and Hep3B cells. Hum Exp Toxicol 2021; 40:2048-2062. [PMID: 34053323 DOI: 10.1177/09603271211017609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The mechanism of cytotoxicity of silibinin on two human hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) cell lines, HepG2 (p53 wild-type) and Hep3B cells (p53 null), is examined in relation with the induction of autophagy and phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (p-AMPK). MATERIALS AND METHODS Levels of apoptosis in relation to the levels of autophagy and those of glycolysis-related proteins, glucose transporter 1/4 (Glut1/4) and hexokinase-II (HK2), in HepG2 and Hep3B cells were examined. RESULTS Silibinin-induced apoptosis was incomplete for HCC cell death in that up-regulated autophagy and/or reduced level of glycolysis, which are induced by silibinin treatment, antagonized silibinin-induced apoptosis. Inhibition of autophagy with 3-methyl adenine (3MA) or blocking of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation with Compound C (CC) enhanced silibinin-induced apoptosis. The results confirm that AMPK involved in autophagy as well as in glycolysis remaining with silibinin is responsible for attenuation of silibinin-induced apoptosis. Blocking of AMPK or autophagy contributes to the enhancement of silibinin's cytotoxicity to HepG2 and Hep3B cells. CONCLUSION This study shows that incomplete apoptosis of HCC by silibinin treatment becomes complete by repression of autophagy and/or glycolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Yang
- Department of Pharmacy, 159411The Third People's Hospital of Chengdu, Chengdu, Sichuan, People's Republic of China.,Wuya College of Innovation, 58575Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
| | - Y Sun
- Wuya College of Innovation, 58575Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
| | - F Xu
- Wuya College of Innovation, 58575Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
| | - W Liu
- Wuya College of Innovation, 58575Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
| | - T Hayashi
- Wuya College of Innovation, 58575Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China.,Department of Chemistry and Life Science, School of Advanced Engineering, Kogakuin University, Hachioji, Tokyo, Japan.,Nippi Research Institute of Biomatrix, Toride, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - K Mizuno
- Nippi Research Institute of Biomatrix, Toride, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - S Hattori
- Nippi Research Institute of Biomatrix, Toride, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - H Fujisaki
- Nippi Research Institute of Biomatrix, Toride, Ibaraki, Japan
| | - T Ikejima
- Wuya College of Innovation, 58575Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Computational Chemistry-Based Natural Antitumor Drug Research & Development, 58575Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, People's Republic of China
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Echeverria V, Echeverria F, Barreto GE, Echeverría J, Mendoza C. Estrogenic Plants: to Prevent Neurodegeneration and Memory Loss and Other Symptoms in Women After Menopause. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:644103. [PMID: 34093183 PMCID: PMC8172769 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.644103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammals, sexual hormones such as estrogens play an essential role in maintaining brain homeostasis and function. Estrogen deficit in the brain induces many undesirable symptoms such as learning and memory impairment, sleep and mood disorders, hot flushes, and fatigue. These symptoms are frequent in women who reached menopausal age or have had ovariectomy and in men and women subjected to anti-estrogen therapy. Hormone replacement therapy alleviates menopause symptoms; however, it can increase cardiovascular and cancer diseases. In the search for therapeutic alternatives, medicinal plants and specific synthetic and natural molecules with estrogenic effects have attracted widespread attention between the public and the scientific community. Various plants have been used for centuries to alleviate menstrual and menopause symptoms, such as Cranberry, Ginger, Hops, Milk Thistle, Red clover, Salvia officinalis, Soy, Black cohosh, Turnera diffusa, Ushuva, and Vitex. This review aims to highlight current evidence about estrogenic medicinal plants and their pharmacological effects on cognitive deficits induced by estrogen deficiency during menopause and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Echeverria
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Sebastian, Concepcion, Chile.,Research and Development Service, Bay Pines VA Healthcare System, Bay Pines, FL, Unites States
| | | | - George E Barreto
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.,Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
| | - Javier Echeverría
- Departamento de Ciencias del Ambiente, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Cristhian Mendoza
- Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Sebastian, Concepcion, Chile
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Lyu J, Long X, Xie T, Jiang G, Jiang J, Ye L, Li Q. Copper oxide nanoparticles promote α-synuclein oligomerization and underlying neurotoxicity as a model of Parkinson's disease. J Mol Liq 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2020.115051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Wang J, Zhang X, Zhang L, Yan T, Wu B, Xu F, Jia Y. Silychristin A activates Nrf2-HO-1/SOD2 pathway to reduce apoptosis and improve GLP-1 production through upregulation of estrogen receptor α in GLUTag cells. Eur J Pharmacol 2020; 881:173236. [PMID: 32497626 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2020.173236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), a glucagon-like peptide secreted mainly from intestinal L cells, possesses the functions of promoting synthesis and secretion of insulin in pancreatic β-cells, and maintaining glucose homeostasis in an insulin-independent manner. Silychristin A, a major flavonolignan from silymarin, was reported to protect pancreatic β-cells from oxidative damage in streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. However, the role of silychristin A in the protection of intestinal L-cells is still unknown. Our current study demonstrated that palmitate (PA) inhibited protein expression of NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2), and subsequently increased reactive oxygen species level to induce apoptosis and decrease GLP-1 content in intestinal L-cell line GLUTag cells. Pre-incubation of silychristin A effectively reversed PA-inactivated Nrf2-HO-1/SOD2 antioxidative pathway accompanied with decreased apoptosis level and increased GLP-1 level in GLUTag cells. As a potential target of silychristin A, estrogen receptor α was shown to be downregulated by PA stimulation, and the expression of which was improved by silychristin A in a concentration-dependent manner. Further study revealed that the treatment of estrogen receptor α antagonist MPP induced apoptosis and blocked the stimulation of GLP-1 production by silychristin A through the activation of Nrf2-HO-1/SOD2 pathway in GLUTag cells. Taken together, our study found silychristin A activated estrogen receptor α-dependent Nrf2-HO-1/SOD2 pathway to decrease apoptosis and upregulate GLP-1 production in GLUTag cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyu Wang
- School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, PR China
| | - Xiaoying Zhang
- School of Traditional Chinese Materia Medica, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, PR China
| | - Luxin Zhang
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, PR China
| | - Tingxu Yan
- Faculty of Functional Food and Wine, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, PR China
| | - Bo Wu
- Faculty of Functional Food and Wine, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, PR China
| | - Fanxing Xu
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, PR China.
| | - Ying Jia
- Faculty of Functional Food and Wine, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, 110016, PR China.
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Raimundo AF, Ferreira S, Martins IC, Menezes R. Islet Amyloid Polypeptide: A Partner in Crime With Aβ in the Pathology of Alzheimer's Disease. Front Mol Neurosci 2020; 13:35. [PMID: 32265649 PMCID: PMC7103646 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.00035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetes affects hundreds of millions of patients worldwide. Despite the advances in understanding the disease and therapeutic options, it remains a leading cause of death and of comorbidities globally. Islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), or amylin, is a hormone produced by pancreatic β-cells. It contributes to the maintenance of glucose physiological levels namely by inhibiting insulin and glucagon secretion as well as controlling adiposity and satiation. IAPP is a highly amyloidogenic polypeptide forming intracellular aggregates and amyloid structures that are associated with β-cell death. Data also suggest the relevance of unprocessed IAPP forms as seeding for amyloid buildup. Besides the known consequences of hyperamylinemia in the pancreas, evidence has also pointed out that IAPP has a pathological role in cognitive function. More specifically, IAPP was shown to impair the blood–brain barrier; it was also seen to interact and co-deposit with amyloid beta peptide (Aß), and possibly with Tau, within the brain of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, thereby contributing to diabetes-associated dementia. In fact, it has been suggested that AD results from a metabolic dysfunction in the brain, leading to its proposed designation as type 3 diabetes. Here, we have first provided a brief perspective on the IAPP amyloidogenic process and its role in diabetes and AD. We have then discussed the potential interventions for modulating IAPP proteotoxicity that can be explored for therapeutics. Finally, we have proposed the concept of a “diabetes brain phenotype” hypothesis in AD, which may help design future IAPP-centered drug developmentstrategies against AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana F Raimundo
- iBET - Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal.,CEDOC - Chronic Diseases Research Center, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.,ITQB-NOVA, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Sofia Ferreira
- iBET - Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal.,CEDOC - Chronic Diseases Research Center, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ivo C Martins
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Regina Menezes
- iBET - Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Oeiras, Portugal.,CEDOC - Chronic Diseases Research Center, Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal.,ITQB-NOVA, Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
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Zhang X, Chen YR, Zhao YL, Liu WW, Hayashi T, Mizuno K, Hattori S, Fujisaki H, Ogura T, Onodera S, Ikejima T. Type I collagen or gelatin stimulates mouse peritoneal macrophages to aggregate and produce pro-inflammatory molecules through upregulated ROS levels. Int Immunopharmacol 2019; 76:105845. [PMID: 31470266 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2019.105845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Extracellular matrix (ECM) comprising the environments of multicellular society has a dynamic network structure. Collagen is one of the ubiquitous components of ECM. Collagen affects the inflammatory response by regulating the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines from cells. Gelatin, denatured collagen found temporally in tissues, is supposed to be pathophysiologically involved in tissue remodeling, inflammation caused by tissue damage. Previous reports indicate that, phorbol myristate (PMA)-stimulated human U937 (lymphoma cell line) cells that are often used as macrophage-like cells, show cell aggregations when cultured on type I collagen (col I) or gelatin-coated dishes, accompanying the changes of production and release of proinflammatory factors. However, it still remains to be examined whether collagen and gelatin affects normal macrophages as well. AIM This study aims to investigate the effect of col. I, the main component of collagenous protein and its denatured product, gelatin, on mouse peritoneal macrophages (MPMs). METHODS MTT assay, flow cytometric analysis of ROS, biochemical detection of antioxidant levels, ELISA assay, and western blot were used. RESULTS MPMs formed multicellular aggregates on col. I - and gelatin-coated dishes with a concentration- and time-dependent manner. Further studies showed that the culture on col. I and gelatin up-regulated the protein expression and secretion of pro-inflammatory molecules such as IL-1β, TNFα and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in MPMs. The levels were higher in the cells on gelatin than those on col. I. ROS levels are significantly increased in the cells cultured on both col. I- and gelatin-coated dishes, accompanying decreased levels of antioxidant enzyme catalase (CAT) and anti-oxidant glutathione (GSH), and enhanced nuclear translocation of NF-κB. CONCLUSION Col I - or gelatin-coated culture induced the formation of multicellular aggregates and increased production of NF-κB-associated pro-inflammatory molecules in MPMs through up-regulation of ROS levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Zhang
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Yi-Ran Chen
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Ye-Li Zhao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang 325035, China
| | - Wei-Wei Liu
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China
| | - Toshihiko Hayashi
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China; Department of Chemistry and Life Science, School of Advanced Engineering Kogakuin University, 2665-1, Nakanomachi Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0015, Japan
| | - Kazunori Mizuno
- Nippi Research Institute of Biomatrix, Toride, Ibaraki 302-0017, Japan
| | - Shunji Hattori
- Nippi Research Institute of Biomatrix, Toride, Ibaraki 302-0017, Japan
| | - Hitomi Fujisaki
- Nippi Research Institute of Biomatrix, Toride, Ibaraki 302-0017, Japan
| | - Takayuki Ogura
- Nippi Research Institute of Biomatrix, Toride, Ibaraki 302-0017, Japan
| | - Satoshi Onodera
- Medical Research Institute of Curing mibyo, Machida, Tokyo 194-0042, Japan
| | - Takashi Ikejima
- China-Japan Research Institute of Medical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, China; Key Laboratory of Computational Chemistry-Based Natural Antitumor Drug Research and Development, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang 110016, Liaoning, China.
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