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Nieddu M, Baralla E, Sodano F, Boatto G. Analysis of 2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamines and 2,5-dimethoxy-phenethylamines aiming their determination in biological matrices: a review. Forensic Toxicol 2023; 41:1-24. [PMID: 36652064 PMCID: PMC9849320 DOI: 10.1007/s11419-022-00638-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The present review aims to provide an overview of methods for the quantification of 2,5-dimethoxy-amphetamines and -phenethylamines in different biological matrices, both traditional and alternative ones. METHODS A complete literature search was carried out with PubMed, Scopus and the World Wide Web using relevant keywords, e.g., designer drugs, amphetamines, phenethylamines, and biological matrices. RESULTS Synthetic phenethylamines represent one of the largest classes of "designer drugs", obtained through chemical structure modifications of psychoactive substances to increase their pharmacological activities. This practice is also favored by the fact that every new synthetic compound is not considered illegal by existing legislation. Generally, in a toxicological laboratory, the first monitoring of drugs of abuse is made by rapid screening tests that sometimes can occur in false positive or false negative results. To reduce evaluation errors, it is mandatory to submit the positive samples to confirmatory methods, such as gas chromatography or liquid chromatography combined to mass spectrometry, for a more specific qualitative and quantitative analysis. CONCLUSIONS This review highlights the great need for updated comprehensive analytical methods, particularly when analyzing biological matrices, both traditional and alternative ones, for the search of newly emerging designer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Nieddu
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, 07100, Sassari, Italy.
| | - Elena Baralla
- grid.11450.310000 0001 2097 9138Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
| | - Federica Sodano
- grid.4691.a0000 0001 0790 385XDepartment of Pharmacy, University of Naples Federico II, 80131 Naples, Italy
| | - Gianpiero Boatto
- grid.11450.310000 0001 2097 9138Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
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Frison G, Odoardi S, Frasson S, Sciarrone R, Ortar G, Romolo FS, Strano Rossi S. Characterization of the designer drug bk-2C-B (2-amino-1-(bromo-dimethoxyphenyl)ethan-1-one) by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry without and with derivatization with 2,2,2-trichloroethyl chloroformate, liquid chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2015; 29:1196-1204. [PMID: 26395784 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2015] [Revised: 04/09/2015] [Accepted: 04/12/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE We describe the analytical characterization of the designer drug bk-2C-B, a cathinone derivative, contained in a seized tablet, in the absence of an analytical standard. METHODS The analytical techniques employed include gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS), without and with derivatization with 2,2,2-trichloroethyl chloroformate, liquid chromatography/high-resolution-MS (LC/HRMS) with an Orbitrap® analyzer, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). LC/HRMS measurements consisted of accurate mass measurements of MH(+) ionic species under full scan conditions; comparison of experimental and calculated MH(+) isotopic patterns; examination of the isotopic fine structure (IFS) of the M+1, M+2, M+3 isotopic peaks relative to the monoisotopic M+0 peak; study of MH(+) collision-induced dissociation (CID) product ions obtained in fragmentation experiments. RESULTS GC/MS analysis gave highly informative EI mass spectra, particularly after the derivatization of bk-2C-B with 2,2,2-trichloroethyl chloroformate. The application of LC/HRMS, allowing for accurate mass measurements at 100,000 resolving power, greatly enhanced analytical capabilities in structural characterization of this new designer drug. HRMS allowed us to obtain the accurate mass measurements of bk-2C-B MH(+) ionic species, with a mass accuracy of 2.19 ppm; fully superimposable experimental and calculated MH(+) isotopic patterns, with RIA1 and RIA2 values <4%; the IFS of the M+1, M+2, M+3 isotopic peaks relative to the monoisotopic M+0 peak completely in accordance with theoretical values. These findings enabled us to obtain the elemental composition formula of the seized drug. Furthermore, characteristic MH(+) CID product ions enabled the characterization of the bk-2C-B molecular structure. The presence of (79)Br and (81)Br isotopes in the substance molecule produced a characteristic isotopic pattern in most MS spectra. Lastly, NMR spectra allowed us to obtain useful information about the position of substituents in the designer drug. CONCLUSIONS The combination of all the analytical techniques employed allowed the characterization of the seized psychoactive substance, in spite of the lack of a reference standard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giampietro Frison
- Laboratory of Environmental Hygiene and Forensic Toxicology, Department of Prevention, Azienda ULSS 12 Veneziana, Italy
| | - Sara Odoardi
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy
| | - Samuela Frasson
- Laboratory of Environmental Hygiene and Forensic Toxicology, Department of Prevention, Azienda ULSS 12 Veneziana, Italy
| | - Rocco Sciarrone
- Laboratory of Environmental Hygiene and Forensic Toxicology, Department of Prevention, Azienda ULSS 12 Veneziana, Italy
| | - Giorgio Ortar
- Department of Drug Chemistry and Technologies, Sapienza - Università di Roma, Italy
| | - Francesco Saverio Romolo
- Legal Medicine Section - SAPIENZA Università di Roma, Italy
- Institut de Police Scientifique, Université de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sabina Strano Rossi
- Institute of Public Health, Section of Legal Medicine, Catholic University of Sacred Heart, Rome, Italy
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3
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Vogliardi S, Tucci M, Stocchero G, Ferrara SD, Favretto D. Sample preparation methods for determination of drugs of abuse in hair samples: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2015; 857:1-27. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2014.06.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2014] [Revised: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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4
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Takayama T, Suzuki M, Todoroki K, Inoue K, Min JZ, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Goda Y, Toyo'oka T. UPLC/ESI-MS/MS-based determination of metabolism of several new illicit drugs, ADB-FUBINACA, AB-FUBINACA, AB-PINACA, QUPIC, 5F-QUPIC and α-PVT, by human liver microsome. Biomed Chromatogr 2015; 28:831-8. [PMID: 24861751 DOI: 10.1002/bmc.3155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The metabolism by human liver microsomes of several new illicit drugs, that is, N-(1-amino-3,3-dimethyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-(4-fluorobenzyl)-1H-indazole-3- carboxamide (ADB-FUBINACA), N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1- (4-fluorobenzyl)-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (AB-FUBINACA), N-(1-amino-3-methyl-1-oxobutan-2-yl)-1-pentyl-1H-indazole-3-carboxamide (AB-PINACA), quinolin-8-yl 1-pentyl-(1H-indole)-3-carboxylate (QUPIC), quinolin-8-yl 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-(1H-indole)-3-carboxylate (5 F-QUPIC) and α-pyrrolidinovalerothiophenone (α-PVT), which have indole, indazole, quinolinol ester and thiophene structures, was investigated using reversed-phase chromatography and mass spectrometry. The present method is based upon the oxidation by cytochrome p450 superfamily enzymes in the microsomes. The oxidation of ADB-FUBINACA and AB-FUBINACA mainly occurred on the N-(1-amino-alkyl-1-oxobutan) moiety. However, the oxidation of AB-PINACA seemed to occur on the 1-pentyl moiety. On the other hand, QUPIC and 5 F-QUPIC, which have a quinolinol ester structure, predominantly underwent a cleavage reaction to produce indoleacetic acid type metabolites. In contrast, the metabolism reaction of α-PVT was different from that of the other tested drugs, and various oxidation products were observed on the chromatograms. The obtained metabolites are not in conflict with the results predicted by MetaboLynx software. However, the exact structures of the metabolites, except for 1-pentyl-1H-indole-3-carboxylic acid (QUPIC metabolite) and 1-(5-fluoropentyl)-1H-indole-3-carboxylic acid (5 F-QUPIC metabolite), are currently not proven, because we have no authentic compounds for comparison. The proposed approach using human liver microsome seems to provide a new technology for the prediction of possible metabolites occuring in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takahiro Takayama
- Laboratory of Analytical and Bio-Analytical Chemistry, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, 422-8526, Japan
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5
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Liu HC, Liu RH, Lin DL. Simultaneous Quantitation of Amphetamines and Opiates in Human Hair by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. J Anal Toxicol 2015; 39:183-91. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bku174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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6
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A review of sampling and pretreatment techniques for the collection of airborne amines. Trends Analyt Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2014.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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7
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Maher HM, Awad T, DeRuiter J, Randall Clark C. GC-MS and GC-IRD studies on brominated dimethoxyamphetamines: regioisomers related to 4-Br-2,5-DMA (DOB). Drug Test Anal 2012; 4:591-600. [PMID: 22389110 DOI: 10.1002/dta.409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Revised: 12/02/2011] [Accepted: 12/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2023]
Abstract
A series of regioisomeric bromodimethoxyamphetamines have mass spectra essentially equivalent to the controlled drug substance 4-Br-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (4-Br-2,5-DMA; DOB); all have molecular weight of 274 and major fragment ions in their electron ionization mass spectra at m/z 44 and m/z 230/232. The trifluoroacetyl, pentafluoropropionyl and heptafluorobutryl derivatives of the primary regioisomeric amines were prepared and evaluated in gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) studies. The mass spectra for these derivatives did not show unique fragment ions for specific identification of individual isomers. However, the mass spectra do serve to divide the compounds into three groups, depending on their base peak. Gas chromatography with infrared detection (GC-IRD) provides direct confirmatory data for the identification of the designer drug 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine from the other regioisomers involved in the study. The perfluoroacylated derivatives of the six regioisomeric bromodimethoxyamphetamines were successfully resolved on non-polar stationary phases such as a 100% dimethylpolysiloxane stationary phase (Rtx-1) and 50% phenyl - 50% methyl polysiloxane (Rxi-50).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadir M Maher
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
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Maher HM, Awad T, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. GC-MS and GC-IRD studies on dimethoxyphenethylamines (DMPEA): regioisomers related to 2,5-DMPEA. J Chromatogr Sci 2012; 50:1-9. [PMID: 22291049 DOI: 10.1093/chromsci/bmr013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
A series of regioisomeric dimethoxyphenethylamines have a mass spectra essentially equivalent to the drug substance 2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2,5-DMPEA). These substances have a molecular weight of 181, and major fragment ions in their electron ionization mass spectra at m/z 151/152. The trifluoroacetyl, pentafluoropropionyl, and heptafluorobutryl derivatives of these primary amines were prepared and evaluated by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry detection (GC-MS). The mass spectra for these derivatives do not show unique fragment ions to allow the specific identification of a particular isomer. Thus, GC-MS does not provide for the confirmation of identity of any one of the six isomers to the exclusion of the other five compounds. However, GC-MS does divide the compounds into two groups depending on the mass of the base peak. GC with infrared detection provides direct confirmatory data for the identification of 2,5-DMPEA from the other regioisomers involved in the study. Perfluoroacylated derivatives of the six regioisomeric dimethoxyphenethylamines were successfully resolved via capillary GC on a non-polar stationary phase consisting of 50% phenyl and 50% methyl polysiloxane (Rxi-50).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hadir M Maher
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21521, Egypt
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9
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Favretto D, Vogliardi S, Stocchero G, Nalesso A, Tucci M, Ferrara SD. High performance liquid chromatography–high resolution mass spectrometry and micropulverized extraction for the quantification of amphetamines, cocaine, opioids, benzodiazepines, antidepressants and hallucinogens in 2.5mg hair samples. J Chromatogr A 2011; 1218:6583-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2011.07.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2011] [Revised: 06/28/2011] [Accepted: 07/14/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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10
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Fragmentation Pathways of Trifluoroacetyl Derivatives of Methamphetamine, Amphetamine, and Methylenedioxyphenylalkylamine Designer Drugs by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1155/2011/318148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (MA), amphetamine (AM), and the methylenedioxyphenylalkylamine designer drugs, such as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA), N-methyl-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-butanamine (MBDB), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), and 3,4-(methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-butanamine (BDB), are widely abused as psychedelics. In this paper, these compounds were derivatized with trifluoroacetic (TFA) anhydride and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry using electron ionization in positive mode. Gas chromatographic separation for TFA derivatives of all compounds was successfully resolved using an Equity-5 fused silica capillary column with a poly (5% diphenyl-95% dimethylsiloxane) stationary phase. Base peaks or prominent peaks of MA, AM, MDMA, MDEA, MBDB, MDA, and BDB appeared at m/z 154, 140, 154, 168, 168, 135, and 135, respectively. These occurred due to α-cleavage from the amide nitrogen, splitting into the TFA imine species and benzyl or methylenedioxybenzyl cations. Further prominent fragment ions at m/z 118 for MA and AM, m/z 162 for MDMA, MDEA, and MDA, and m/z 176 for MBDB and BDB were produced by cleavage of the phenylpropane or methylenedioxypropane hydrocarbon radical cation via a hydrogen rearrangement. These fragmentation pathways for the TFA derivatives of all the compounds are summarized and illustrated in this paper.
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11
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Frison G, Gregio M, Zamengo L, Zancanaro F, Frasson S, Sciarrone R. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry determination of mephedrone in drug seizures after derivatization with 2,2,2-trichloroethyl chloroformate. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2011; 25:387-390. [PMID: 21192034 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.4842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
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12
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Chen SJ, Cheng FC, Jen JF. On-line microdialysis coupled solid-phase extraction to decrease matrix interference in the HPLC analysis of urinary ketamine and its metabolites. J Sep Sci 2010; 33:2010-6. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201000002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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13
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Strano-Rossi S, Botrè F, Bermejo AM, Tabernero MJ. A rapid method for the extraction, enantiomeric separation and quantification of amphetamines in hair. Forensic Sci Int 2009; 193:95-100. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2009] [Revised: 09/14/2009] [Accepted: 09/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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14
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Maher HM, Awad T, DeRuiter J, Clark CR. GC–MS and GC–IRD studies on dimethoxyamphetamines (DMA): Regioisomers related to 2,5-DMA. Forensic Sci Int 2009; 192:115-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2009.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2009] [Revised: 08/06/2009] [Accepted: 08/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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15
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Min JZ, Hatanaka S, Toyo’oka T, Inagaki S, Kikura-Hanajiri R, Goda Y. Rapid, sensitive and simultaneous determination of fluorescence-labeled designated substances controlled by the Pharmaceutical Affairs Law in Japan by ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray-ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 395:1411-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-3046-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2009] [Revised: 08/06/2009] [Accepted: 08/07/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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16
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Johansen SS, Jornil J. Determination of amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDA and MDMA in human hair by GC‐EI‐MS after derivatization with perfluorooctanoyl chloride. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 2009; 69:113-20. [DOI: 10.1080/00365510802439072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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TAKAHASHI M, NAGASHIMA M, SUZUKI J, SETO T, YASUDA I, YOSHIDA T. Creation and application of psychoactive designer drugs data library using liquid chromatography with photodiode array spectrophotometry detector and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Talanta 2009; 77:1245-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2008.07.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2008] [Revised: 07/27/2008] [Accepted: 07/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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18
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Simultaneous determination of 11 designated hallucinogenic phenethylamines by ultra-fast liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2008; 873:187-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2008.08.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2008] [Revised: 08/19/2008] [Accepted: 08/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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KHUHAWAR MY, ZARDARI LA. Ethyl Chloroformate as a Derivatizing Reagent for the Gas Chromatographic Determination of Isoniazid and Hydrazine in Pharmaceutical Preparations. ANAL SCI 2008; 24:1493-6. [DOI: 10.2116/analsci.24.1493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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20
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Gunnar T, Engblom C, Ariniemi K. Pressure-adjusted continual flow heart-cutting for the high throughput determination of amphetamine-type stimulant drugs in whole blood by fast multidimensional gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2007; 1166:171-80. [PMID: 17727863 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2007.07.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2007] [Revised: 07/27/2007] [Accepted: 07/31/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Innovative features and technical improvements in modern bench-top quadrupole gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer (GC-MS) have prepared the way for faster and more cost-effective applications while still maintaining sufficient chromatographic resolution, speed of MS data acquisition and reliability of analytical methodology. In this paper, a short wide-bore capillary column with low film thickness (5 m x 0.32 mm i.d., 0.1 microm) was used a pre-fractionating column and only chosen heart-cuts were transferred to the second chromatographic dimension (15 m x 0.25 mm i.d., 0.25 microm) by means of a pressure-adjusted continual flow type switching device for quantification of five common amphetamine-type stimulant drugs. The instrumental setting used, in combination with carefully optimized operational fast GC and MS parameters, markedly decreased the retention times of the targeted analytes, e.g., amphetamine 0.891 min and methamphetamine 1.037 min, and the total chromatographic runtime (1.700 min), as well as reducing the need for continuous cleaning of the MS ion source and increasing column life compared with conventional GC-MS approaches. The performance of the instrumental configuration and analytical method was evaluated in validation experiments and the method was also applied to authentic samples. The method demonstrates the potential of fast GC-MS in combination with a gas-phase microfluidic Deans switch device for analysing of (semi)volatile compounds, such as amphetamine-type stimulant (ATS) drugs. This should be particularly useful in modern laboratories aiming at cost-efficient analysis as well as the optimum use of available laboratory capacity and instrumentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teemu Gunnar
- National Public Health Institute, Drug Research Unit, Mannerheimintie 166, 00300 Helsinki, Finland.
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Kudo K, Ishida T, Hara K, Kashimura S, Tsuji A, Ikeda N. Simultaneous determination of 13 amphetamine related drugs in human whole blood using an enhanced polymer column and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2007; 855:115-20. [PMID: 17403620 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2007.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2006] [Revised: 02/28/2007] [Accepted: 03/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Metamphetamine (MA) is one of the most frequently encountered abused drugs in Japan and the Triage immunoassay kit is often used to screen for this drug. However, immunoassay screening also gives positive results with other structurally related compounds, such as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), p-methoxyamphetamine (PMA), an ephedrine metabolite and beta-phenethylamine (PEA). Therefore, it is important to develop a simple and reliable method which can determine these drugs simultaneously. This paper describes a simple method for simultaneous identification and quantification of 13 amphetamine related drugs in human whole blood. The method consists of a solid phase extraction using a new polar-enhanced Focus column followed by acetylation and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in the scan mode. Tetradeuterated MA and trideuterated methylephedrine (ME) were used as internal standards. As the Focus column required only simple extraction steps and provided a clean extract, identification of each drug was feasible even at low concentrations. The calibration curves were linear over the concentration range from 50 to 5000 ng/ml for all drugs with correlation coefficients that exceeded 0.99. The lower limits of detection of the drugs were 5-50 ng/ml. The absolute recoveries for the drugs were 65-95% and 64-89% at concentrations of 100 and 1000 ng/ml, respectively. Accuracy and precision data were satisfactory when using 2 internal standards. The applicability of the assay was proven by the analysis of blood samples in forensic cases. This method should be most useful for confirmation of positive immunoassay results for amphetamines and related drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiko Kudo
- Department of Forensic Pathology and Sciences, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
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Musshoff F, Madea B. Analytical pitfalls in hair testing. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 388:1475-94. [PMID: 17486322 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1288-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2007] [Revised: 03/23/2007] [Accepted: 03/28/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This review focuses on possible pitfalls in hair testing procedures. Knowledge of such pitfalls is useful when developing and validating methods, since it can be used to avoid wrong results as well as wrong interpretations of correct results. In recent years, remarkable advances in sensitive and specific analytical techniques have enabled the analysis of drugs in alternative biological specimens such as hair. Modern analytical procedures for the determination of drugs in hair specimens - mainly by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) - are reviewed and critically discussed. Many tables containing information related to this topic are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Musshoff
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Bonn, Stiftsplatz 12, 53111 Bonn, Germany.
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Kraemer T, Paul LD. Bioanalytical procedures for determination of drugs of abuse in blood. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 388:1415-35. [PMID: 17468860 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1271-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2007] [Revised: 03/16/2007] [Accepted: 03/19/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Determination of drugs of abuse in blood is of great importance in clinical and forensic toxicology. This review describes procedures for detection of the following drugs of abuse and their metabolites in whole blood, plasma or serum: Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-hydroxy-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol glucuronide, heroin, 6-monoacetylmorphine, morphine, morphine-6-glucuronide, morphine-3-glucuronide, codeine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, N-ethyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, cocaine, benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester, cocaethylene, other cocaine metabolites or pyrolysis products (norcocaine, norcocaethylene, norbenzoylecgonine, m-hydroxycocaine, p-hydroxycocaine, m-hydroxybenzoylecgonine, p-hydroxybenzoylecgonine, ethyl ecgonine, ecgonine, anhydroecgonine methyl ester, anhydroecgonine ethyl ester, anhydroecgonine, noranhydroecgonine, N-hydroxynorcocaine, cocaine N-oxide, anhydroecgonine methyl ester N-oxide). Metabolites and degradation products which are recommended to be monitored for assessment in clinical or forensic toxicology are mentioned. Papers written in English between 2002 and the beginning of 2007 are reviewed. Analytical methods are assessed for their suitability in forensic toxicology, where special requirements have to be met. For many of the analytes sensitive immunological methods for screening are available. Screening and confirmation is mostly done by gas chromatography (GC)-mass spectrometry (MS) or liquid chromatography (LC)-MS(/MS) procedures. Basic information about the biosample assayed, internal standard, workup, GC or LC column and mobile phase, detection mode, and validation data for each procedure is summarized in two tables to facilitate the selection of a method suitable for a specific analytic problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Kraemer
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Saarland University, 66421 Homburg (Saar), Germany.
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Drummer OH. Requirements for bioanalytical procedures in postmortem toxicology. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007; 388:1495-503. [PMID: 17377776 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-007-1238-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2007] [Revised: 02/25/2007] [Accepted: 03/01/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The application of analytical techniques in postmortem toxicology is often more difficult than in other forms of forensic toxicology owing to the variable and often degraded nature of the specimens and the diverse range of specimens available for analysis. Consequently, analysts must ensure that all methods are fully validated for the particular postmortem specimen(s) used. Collection of specimens must be standardized to minimize site-to-site variability and should if available include a peripheral blood sample and at least one other specimen. Urine and vitreous humor are good specimens to complement blood. In some circumstances solid tissues such as liver are recommended as well as gastric contents. Substance-screening techniques are the most important element since they will determine the range of substances that were targeted in the investigation and provide initial indication of the possible role of substances in the death. While immunoassay techniques are still commonly used for the most common drugs-of-abuse, chromatographic screening methods are required for general unknown testing. These are still predominately gas chromatography (GC) based using nitrogen/phosphorous detection and/or mass spectrometry (MS) detection, although some laboratories are now using time-of-flight MS or liquid chromatography (LC)-MS(MS) to cover a sometimes more limited range of substances. It is recommended that laboratories include a second chromatographic method to provide coverage of acidic and other substances not readily covered by a GC-based screen when extracts do not include all physiochemical types. This may include a gradient high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) photodiode array method, or better LC-MS(MS). Substance-specific techniques (e.g., benzodiazepines, opiates) providing a second form of identification (confirmation) are now divided between GC-MS(MS) and LC-MS(MS) procedures. LC-MS(MS) has taken over from many methods for the more polar compounds previously used in HPLC or in GC methods requiring derivatization. Analysts using LC-MS will need to obtain clean extracts to avoid poor and variable sensitivity caused by background suppression of the signal. Isolation techniques in postmortem toxicology tend to favor liquid extraction; however solid-phase extraction and solid-phase microextraction methods are available for many analytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaf H Drummer
- Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Medicine, Monash University, Southbank, VIC 3006, Australia.
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Dong L, Deng C, Wang J, Shen X. Fast determination of paeonol in plasma by headspace solid-phase microextraction followed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2007; 585:76-80. [PMID: 17386649 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2006.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2006] [Revised: 12/05/2006] [Accepted: 12/07/2006] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Paeonol is the active component in the traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs), such as Cynanchum paniculatum, which has been used to treat many diseases, such as eczema. In this work, a simple, rapid and sensitive method was developed for the determination of paeonol in rabbit plasma, which was based on headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The extraction parameters of fiber coating, sample temperature, extraction time, stirring rate and ion strength were systemically optimized; the method linearity, detection limit and precision were also investigated. It was shown that the proposed method provided a good linearity (0.02-20 microg mL(-1), R(2)>0.990), low detection limit (2.0 ng mL(-1)) and good precision (R.S.D. value less than 8%). Finally, GC/MS following HS-SPME was applied to fast determination of paeonol in rabbit plasma at different time point after oral demonstration of Cynanchum paniculatum essential oil. The experimental results suggest that the proposed method provided an alternative and novel approach to the pharmacokinetics study of paeonol in the TCMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Dong
- Zhongshan Hosptial, Medical college of Shanghai, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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Boatto G, Nieddu M, Pirisi MA, Dessì G. Simultaneous determination of new thioamphetamine designer drugs in plasma by capillary electrophoresis coupled with mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2007; 21:3716-20. [PMID: 17955568 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.3273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A simple method for the simultaneous identification and quantification of four 2,5-methylenedioxy derivatives of 4-thioamphetamine (ALEPH series) in plasma samples was developed. The method consists of solid-phase extraction (SPE) using a Bond Elut C(18) cartridge and capillary electrophoresis coupled with electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (CE/ESI-MS). The SPE method used required only simple steps and provided a clean extract from which identification of each drug was feasible, even at low concentrations. The method was validated according to international guidelines. The calibration curves were linear over the concentration range of 50 to 1000 ng/mL for all drugs with correlation coefficients that exceeded 0.998. The lower limits of detection of the drugs were 23-43 ng/mL. The absolute recoveries for the drugs were 64-92% and 75-96% at concentrations of 100 and 500 ng/mL, respectively. The validation data (precision, accuracy, and recovery) show the reproducibility and selectivity of the method. This clean and simple method allows the routine detection of designer drugs such as thioamphetamines which may become a serious problem in the control of illegal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianpiero Boatto
- Dipartimento Farmaco Chimico Tossicologico, Università degli Studi di Sassari, Via Muroni 23, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
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Kim JY, Jung KS, Kim MK, Lee JI, In MK. Simultaneous determination of psychotropic phenylalkylamine derivatives in human hair by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2007; 21:1705-20. [PMID: 17474080 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.3010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
A gas chromatography/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) method was developed and validated for the determination of thirteen psychotropic phenylalkylamine derivatives (amphetamine; AP, phentermine; PT, methamphamine; MA, cathinone; Khat, methcathinone; MCAT, fenfluramine; FFA, desmethylselegiline; DSEL, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine; MDA, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine; MDMA, 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine; MDEA, norketamine; NKT, mescaline; MES, 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine; 2CB) in human hair. Hair samples (20 mg) were washed with distilled water and acetone, cut into small fragments (<1 mm), and incubated in 0.25 M methanolic HCl under ultrasonication at 50 degrees C for 1 h. The resulting solutions were evaporated to dryness, derivatized using trifluoroacetic anhydride (TFAA) at 70 degrees C for 30 min, and analyzed by GC/MS. The linear ranges were 0.02-25.0 ng/mg for AP, PT, Khat, FFA, DSEL, MDMA, and 2CB; 0.05-25.0 ng/mg for MA, MCAT, and MES; 0.05-12.5 ng/mg for MDA; and 0.1-25.0 ng/mg for MDEA and NKT, with good correlation coefficients (r(2) > 0.9985). The intra-day, inter-day, and inter-person precisions were within 12.7%, 14.8%, and 16.8%, respectively. The intra-day, inter-day, and inter-person accuracies were between -10.7 and 13.4%, -12.7 and 11.6%, and -15.3 and 11.9%, respectively. The limits of quantifications (LOQs) for each compound were lower than 0.08 ng/mg. The recoveries were in the range of 76.7-95.6%. The method proved to be suitable for the simultaneous qualification and quantification of phenylalkylamine derivatives in hair specimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Young Kim
- Drug Analysis Laboratory, Forensic Science Division, Supreme Prosecutors' Office, Seocho-ggu, Seoul, Korea.
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Tzing SH, Ghule A, Liu JY, Ling YC. On-line derivatization gas chromatography with furan chemical ionization tandem mass spectrometry for screening of amphetamines in urine. J Chromatogr A 2006; 1137:76-83. [PMID: 17034801 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.09.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2006] [Revised: 09/22/2006] [Accepted: 09/27/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A simple alternative method with minimal sample pretreatment is investigated for screening of amphetamines in small volume (using only 20 microL) of urine sample. The method is sensitive and selective. The method uses gas chromatography (GC) direct sample introduction (DSI) for on-line derivatization (acylation) of amphetamines to improve sensitivity. Furan as chemical ionization (CI) reagent in conjunction with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) is used to improve selectivity. Low background with sharp protonated molecular ion peaks of analytes is the evidence of improvement in sensitivity and selectivity. Blank urine samples spiked with known amounts of amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine is analyzed. Selected ion monitoring of the characteristic product ions (m/z 119+136+150+163) using furan CI-MS/MS in positive ion mode is used for quantification. Limits of detection (LOD) between 0.4 and 1.0 ng mL(-1) and limits of quantitation (LOQ) between 1.0 and 2.0 ng mL(-1) are established. Linear response over the range of 1-1000 ng mL(-1) (r(2)>0.997) is observed for all analytes, except for methamphetamine (2.0-1000 ng mL(-1)). Good accuracy between 86 and 113% and precision ranging from 4 to 18% is obtained. The method is also tested on real samples of urine from suspected drug abusers. This method could be used for screening and determination of amphetamines in urine samples, however needs additional work for full validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-Hwa Tzing
- Department of Chemistry, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 30013, Taiwan
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Deng C, Li N, Ji J, Yang B, Duan G, Zhang X. Development of water-phase derivatization followed by solid-phase microextraction and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry for fast determination of valproic acid in human plasma. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2006; 20:1281-7. [PMID: 16548053 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.2451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a simple, rapid, and sensitive method was developed and validated for the quantification of valproic acid (VPA), an antiepileptic drug, in human plasma, which was based on water-phase derivatization followed by headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). In the proposed method, VPA in plasma was rapidly derivatized with a mixture of isobutyl chloroformate, ethanol and pyridine under mild conditions (room temperature, aqueous medium), and the VPA ethyl ester formed was headspace-extracted and simultaneously concentrated using the SPME technique. Finally, the analyte extracted on SPME fiber was analyzed by GC/MS. The experimental parameters and method validations were studied. The optimal conditions were obtained: PDMS fiber, stirring rate of 1100 rpm, sample temperature of 80 degrees C, extraction time of 20 min, NaCl concentration of 30%. The proposed method had a limit of quantification (0.3 microg/mL), good recovery (89-97%) and precision (RSD value less than 10%). Because the proposed method combined a rapid water-phase derivatization with a fast, simple and solvent-free sample extraction and concentration technique of SPME, the sample preparation time was less than 25 min. This much shortens the whole analysis time of VPA in plasma. The validated method has been successfully used to analyze VPA in human plasma samples for application in pharmacokinetic studies. All these results show that water-phase derivatization followed by HS-SPME and GC/MS is an alternative and powerful method for fast determination of VPA in biological fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunhui Deng
- Department of Chemistry, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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Lin HR, Lua AC. Simultaneous determination of amphetamines and ketamines in urine by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2006; 20:1724-30. [PMID: 16676300 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.2499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
A method for the simultaneous determination of amphetamines and ketamines (ketamine, norketamine and dehydronorketamine) in urine samples by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry was developed and validated. Urine samples were extracted with organic solvent and derivatized with trifluoroacetic anhydride (TFAA). The limits of detection and limits of quantification for each analyte were lower than 19 and 30 ng/mL, respectively. Within-day and between-day precisions were within 0.5% and 10.6%, respectively. Biases for three levels of control samples were within -10.6% and +7.8%. The concentration of dehydronorketamine was greater than those of ketamine or norketamine in 19 of 35 ketamine-positive samples. A group of 110 human urine samples previously determined to contain at least one of the target analytes was analyzed using the new method, and excellent agreement was observed with previous results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huei Ru Lin
- Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
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Deng C, Lin S, Huang T, Duan G, Zhang X. Development of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry following headspace solid-phase microextraction for fast determination of asarones in plasma. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2006; 20:2120-6. [PMID: 16773672 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.2570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Asarones (alpha-asarone and beta-asarone) are the active components in the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) of Acorus tatarinowii Schott, which has been used to treat epilepsy for several thousand years. To perform the pharmacokinetics (PK) study of alpha- and beta-asarone from the TCM essential oil, a simple, rapid and sensitive method was developed for the determination of asarones from the TCM in rabbit plasma, based on headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) followed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) with electron ionization (EI). The extraction parameters of headspace volume, fiber coating, sample temperature, extraction time, stirring rate and ion strength were systemically optimized. Furthermore, the method linearity, detection limit and precision were also investigated. It was shown that the proposed method provided a good linearity (0.02-20 microg/mL, R(2) > 0.99), low detection limit (<2.0 ng/mL) and good precision (RSD < 7.0%). Finally, HS-SPME followed by GC/MS was applied to fast determination of alpha- and beta-asarone in rabbit plasma at different time points after oral adminstration of the essential oil from A. tatarinowii. The experimental results suggest that the proposed method provides an alternative approach to the PK studies of volatile compounds in TCMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunhui Deng
- Department of Chemistry, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
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Current literature in mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2005; 40:1390-401. [PMID: 16237664 DOI: 10.1002/jms.811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
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Vitzthum F, Behrens F, Anderson NL, Shaw JH. Proteomics: From Basic Research to Diagnostic Application. A Review of Requirements & Needs†. J Proteome Res 2005; 4:1086-97. [PMID: 16083257 DOI: 10.1021/pr050080b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
For several years proteomics research has been expected to lead to the finding of new markers that will translate into clinical tests applicable to samples such as serum, plasma and urine: so-called in vitro diagnostics (IVDs). Attempts to implement technologies applied in proteomics, in particular protein arrays and surface-enhanced laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (SELDI-TOF MS), as IVD instruments have initiated constructive discussions on opportunities and challenges inherent in such a translation process also with respect to the use of multi-marker profiling approaches and pattern signatures in IVD. Taking into account the role that IVD plays in health care, we describe IVD requirements and needs. Subject to stringent costs versus benefit analyses, IVD has to provide reliable information about a person's condition, prognosis or risk to suffer a disease, thus supporting decisions on treatment or prevention. It is mandatory to fulfill requirements in routine IVD, including disease prevention, diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment monitoring or follow up among others. To fulfill IVD requirements, it is essential to (1) provide diagnostic tests that allow for definite and reliable diagnosis tied to a decision on interventions (prevention, treatment, or nontreatment), (2) meet stringent performance characteristics for each analyte (in particular test accuracy, including both precision of the measurement and trueness of the measurement), and (3) provide adequate diagnostic accuracy, i.e., diagnostic sensitivity and diagnostic specificity, determined by the desired positive and negative predictive values which depend on disease frequency. The fulfillment of essential IVD requirements is mandatory in the regulated environment of modern diagnostics. Addressing IVD needs at an early stage can support a timely and effective transition of findings and developments into routine diagnosis. IVD needs reflect features that are useful in clinical practice. This helps to generate acceptance and assists the implementation process. On the basis of IVD requirements and needs, we outline potential implications for clinical proteomics focused on applied research activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Vitzthum
- Dade Behring Marburg GmbH, Emil-von-Behring-Strasse 76, PO Box 1149, 35041 Marburg, Germany.
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