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Murray KJ, Villalta PW, Griffin TJ, Balbo S. Discovery of Modified Metabolites, Secondary Metabolites, and Xenobiotics by Structure-Oriented LC-MS/MS. Chem Res Toxicol 2023; 36:1666-1682. [PMID: 37862059 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.3c00209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Exogenous compounds and metabolites derived from therapeutics, microbiota, or environmental exposures directly interact with endogenous metabolic pathways, influencing disease pathogenesis and modulating outcomes of clinical interventions. With few spectral library references, the identification of covalently modified biomolecules, secondary metabolites, and xenobiotics is a challenging task using global metabolomics profiling approaches. Numerous liquid chromatography-coupled mass spectrometry (LC-MS) small molecule analytical workflows have been developed to curate global profiling experiments for specific compound groups of interest. These workflows exploit shared structural moiety, functional groups, or elemental composition to discover novel and undescribed compounds through nontargeted small molecule discovery pipelines. This Review introduces the concept of structure-oriented LC-MS discovery methodology and aims to highlight common approaches employed for the detection and characterization of covalently modified biomolecules, secondary metabolites, and xenobiotics. These approaches represent a combination of instrument-dependent and computational techniques to rapidly curate global profiling experiments to detect putative ions of interest based on fragmentation patterns, predictable phase I or phase II metabolic transformations, or rare elemental composition. Application of these methods is explored for the detection and identification of novel and undescribed biomolecules relevant to the fields of toxicology, pharmacology, and drug discovery. Continued advances in these methods expand the capacity for selective compound discovery and characterization that promise remarkable insights into the molecular interactions of exogenous chemicals with host biochemical pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J Murray
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics, College of Biological Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Peter W Villalta
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Timothy J Griffin
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics, College of Biological Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Silvia Balbo
- Division of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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Gladchuk AS, Gorbunov AY, Keltsieva OA, Ilyushonok SK, Babakov VN, Shilovskikh VV, Kolonitskii PD, Stepashkin NA, Soboleva A, Muradymov MZ, Krasnov NV, Sukhodolov NG, Selyutin AA, Frolov A, Podolskaya EP. Coating of a MALDI target with metal oxide nanoparticles by droplet-free electrospraying – a versatile tool for in situ enrichment of human globin adducts of halogen-containing drug metabolites. Microchem J 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2023.108708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
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Wei H, Li AP. Permeabilized cryopreserved human hepatocytes as an exogenous metabolic system in a novelmetabolism-dependent cytotoxicity assay (MDCA) for the evaluation of metabolic activation anddetoxification of drugs associated with drug induced liver injuries: Results with acetaminophen,amiodarone, cyclophosphamide, ketoconazole, nefazodone, and troglitazone. Drug Metab Dispos 2021; 50:140-149. [PMID: 34750194 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We report here a novel in vitro experimental system, the metabolism-dependent cytotoxicity assay (MDCA), for the definition of the roles of hepatic drug metabolism in toxicity. MDCA employs permeabilized cofactor-supplemented cryopreserved human hepatocytes (MetMax{trade mark, serif} human hepatocytes, MMHH), as an exogenous metabolic activating system, and HEK-293 cells, a cell line devoid of drug metabolizing enzyme activity, as target cells for the quantification of drug toxicity. The assay was performed in the presence and absence of cofactors for key drug metabolism pathways known to play key roles in drug toxicity: NADPH/NAD+ for phase 1 oxidation, UDPGA for UGT mediated glucuronidation, PAPS for SULT mediated sulfation, and GSH for GST mediated GSH conjugation. Six drugs with clinically significant hepatoxicity, resulting in liver failure or a need for liver transplantation: acetaminophen, amiodarone, cyclophosphamide, ketoconazole, nefazodone and troglitazone were evaluated. All six drugs exhibited cytotoxicity enhancement by NADPH, suggesting metabolic activation via phase 1 oxidation. Attenuation of cytotoxicity by UDPGA was observed for acetaminophen, ketoconazole and troglitazone, by PAPS for acetaminophen, ketoconazole and troglitazone, and by GSH for all six drugs. Our results suggest that MDCA can be applied towards the elucidation of metabolic activation and detoxification pathways, providing information that can be applied in drug development to guide structure optimization to reduce toxicity and to aid the assessment of metabolism-based risk factors for drug toxicity. GSH detoxification represents an endpoint for the identification of drugs forming cytotoxic reactive metabolites, a key property of drugs with idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity. Significance Statement Application of the metabolism-dependent cytotoxicity assay (MDCA) for the elucidation of the roles of metabolic activation and detoxification pathways in drug toxicity may provide information to guide structure optimization in drug development to reduce hepatotoxic potential, and to aid the assessment of metabolism-based risk factors. GSH detoxification represents an endpoint for the identification of drugs forming cytotoxic reactive metabolites may be applied towards the evaluation of idiosyncratic hepatotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wei
- In Vitro ADMET Laboratories, United States
| | - Albert P Li
- In Vitro ADMET Laboratories Inc., United States
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Ahuie GK, Gagnon H, Pace PE, Peskin AV, Wagner RJ, Naylor S, Klarskov K. Investigating protein thiol chemistry associated with dehydroascorbate, homocysteine and glutathione using mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2020; 34:e8774. [PMID: 32119756 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.8774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Revised: 01/05/2020] [Accepted: 02/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Oxidative stress is an imbalance between reactive free radical oxygen species and antioxidant defenses. Its consequences can lead to numerous pathologies. Regulating oxidative stress is the complex interplay between antioxidant recycling and thiol-containing regulatory proteins. Understanding these regulatory mechanisms is important for preventing onset of oxidative stress. The aim of this study was to investigae S-thiol protein chemistry associated with oxidized vitamin C (dehydroascorbate, DHA), homocysteine (HcySH) and glutathione (GSH) using mass spectrometry. METHODS Glutaredoxin-1 (Grx-1) was incubated with DHA, with and without GSH and HcySH. Disulfide formation was followed by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) of intact proteins and by LC/ESI-MS/MS of peptides from protein tryptic digestions. The mechanism of DHA-mediated S-thiolation was investigated using two synthetic peptides: AcFHACAAK and AcFHACE. Three proteins, i.e. human hemoglobin (HHb), recombinant peroxiredoxin 2 (Prdx2) and Grx-1, were S-homocysteinylated followed by S-transthiolyation with GSH and investigated by ESI-MS and ESI-MS/MS. RESULTS ESI-MS analysis reveals that DHA mediates disulfide formation and S-thiolation by HcySH as well as GSH of Grx-1. LC/ESI-MS/MS analysis allows identification of Grx-1 S-thiolated cysteine adducts. The mechanism by which DHA mediates S-thiolation of heptapeptide AcFHACAAK is shown to be via initial formation of a thiohemiketal adduct. In addition, ESI-MS of intact proteins shows that GSH can S-transthiolate S-homocysteinylated Grx-1_ HHb and Prdx2. The GS-S-protein adducts over time dominate the ESI-MS spectrum profile. CONCLUSIONS Mass spectrometry is a unique analytical technique for probing complex reaction mechanisms associated with oxidative stress. Using model proteins, ESI-MS reveals the mechanism of DHA-facilitated S-thiolation, which consists of thiohemiketal formation, disulfide formation or S-thiolation. Furthermore, protein S-thiolation by HcySH can be reversed by reversible GSH thiol exchange. The use of mass spectrometry with in vitro models of protein S-thiolation in oxidative stress may provide significant insight into possible mechanisms of action occurring in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grace Kouakou Ahuie
- Département de Pharmacologie et Physiologie, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Hugo Gagnon
- PhenoSwitch Bioscience, 975 Rue Léon-Trépanier, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1G 5J6, Canada
| | - Paul E Pace
- Centre for Free Radical Research, University of Otago Christchurch, 2 Riccarton Avenue, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand
| | - Alexander V Peskin
- Centre for Free Radical Research, University of Otago Christchurch, 2 Riccarton Avenue, Christchurch, 8140, New Zealand
| | - Richard J Wagner
- Département de Médecine Nucléaire et Radiobiologie, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Stephen Naylor
- ReNeuroGen LLC, 2160 San Fernando Drive, Elm Grove, WI, 53122, USA
| | - Klaus Klarskov
- Département de Pharmacologie et Physiologie, Faculté de Médecine et des Sciences de la Santé, Université de Sherbrooke, 3001 Avenue Nord, Sherbrooke, Quebec, J1H 5N4, Canada
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Emerging club drugs: 5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-APB) is more toxic than its isomer 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB) in hepatocyte cellular models. Arch Toxicol 2019; 94:609-629. [PMID: 31838565 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-019-02638-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
New phenylethylamine derivatives are among the most commonly abused new psychoactive substances. They are synthesized and marketed in lieu of classical amphetaminic stimulants, with no previous safety testing. Our study aimed to determine the in vitro hepatotoxicity of two benzofurans [6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB) and 5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-APB)] that have been misused as 'legal highs'. Cellular viability was assessed through the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) reduction assay, following 24-h drug exposure of human hepatoma HepaRG cells (EC50 2.62 mM 5-APB; 6.02 mM 6-APB), HepG2 cells (EC50 3.79 mM 5-APB; 8.18 mM 6-APB) and primary rat hepatocytes (EC50 964 μM 5-APB; 1.94 mM 6-APB). Co-incubation of primary hepatocytes, the most sensitive in vitro model, with CYP450 inhibitors revealed a role of metabolism, in particular by CYP3A4, in the toxic effects of both benzofurans. Also, 6-APB and 5-APB concentration-dependently enhanced oxidative stress (significantly increased reactive species and oxidized glutathione, and decreased reduced glutathione levels) and unsettled mitochondrial homeostasis, with disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential and decline of intracellular ATP. Evaluation of cell death mechanisms showed increased caspase-8, -9, and -3 activation, and nuclear morphological changes consistent with apoptosis; at concentrations higher than 2 mM, however, necrosis prevailed. Concentration-dependent formation of acidic vesicular organelles typical of autophagy was also observed for both drugs. Overall, 5-APB displayed higher hepatotoxicity than its 6-isomer. Our findings provide new insights into the potential hepatotoxicity of these so-called 'safe drugs' and highlight the putative risks associated with their use as psychostimulants.
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