1
|
Rajapaksha H, Pandithavidana DR, Dahanayake JN. Demystifying Chronic Kidney Disease of Unknown Etiology (CKDu): Computational Interaction Analysis of Pesticides and Metabolites with Vital Renal Enzymes. Biomolecules 2021; 11:261. [PMID: 33578980 PMCID: PMC7916818 DOI: 10.3390/biom11020261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease of unknown etiology (CKDu) has been recognized as a global non-communicable health issue. There are many proposed risk factors for CKDu and the exact reason is yet to be discovered. Understanding the inhibition or manipulation of vital renal enzymes by pesticides can play a key role in understanding the link between CKDu and pesticides. Even though it is very important to take metabolites into account when investigating the relationship between CKDu and pesticides, there is a lack of insight regarding the effects of pesticide metabolites towards CKDu. In this study, a computational approach was used to study the effects of pesticide metabolites on CKDu. Further, interactions of selected pesticides and their metabolites with renal enzymes were studied using molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation studies. It was evident that some pesticides and metabolites have affinity to bind at the active site or at regulatory sites of considered renal enzymes. Another important discovery was the potential of some metabolites to have higher binding interactions with considered renal enzymes compared to the parent pesticides. These findings raise the question of whether pesticide metabolites may be a main risk factor towards CKDu.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jayangika N. Dahanayake
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Kelaniya, Dalugama, Kelaniya 11600, Western Province, Sri Lanka; (H.R.); (D.R.P.)
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Singh P, Verma PK, Raina R, Sood S, Sharma P. Maximum contaminant level of arsenic in drinking water potentiates quinalphos-induced renal damage on co-administration of both arsenic and quinalphos in Wistar rats. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:21331-21340. [PMID: 32270456 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-08643-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This study was designed to determine alterations in renal biomarkers, antioxidant profile, and histomorphology of renal tissue following subacute exposure to quinalphos alone or in conjunction with arsenic in rats. A total of 54 adult Wistar rats were randomly divided into nine groups of six rats each and were administered sub-lethal concentrations of quinalphos (1/100th and 1/10th of LD50) orally daily and arsenic (50 and 100 ppb) in drinking water for 28 days. Significantly (p < 0.05) decreased levels of antioxidant biomarkers in renal tissue, viz., total thiols, catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione-s-transferase, and glutathione reductase along with increased (p < 0.05) thiobarbituric acid reacting substance (TBRAS) levels indicated that significant oxidative damage to renal tissue occurred following repeated administrations of quinalphos at either dose levels or arsenic at the concentration of 100 ppb when compared with the control rats. The alterations in the antioxidant parameters were observed to be more pronounced in co-administered groups as compared with either toxicant administered group. Similarly, activity of renal acetylcholinesterase was decreased after repeated exposure to quinalphos or arsenic, but inhibition was higher (up to 48%) in rat renal tissue co-exposed with quinalphos and arsenic at the higher concentration. These findings corroborated with the histopathological alterations in renal tissue of toxicant exposed rats. The altered plasma and tissue antioxidant biomarkers along with histopathological changes in the kidney at higher dose level of either toxicant indicate that renal tissue is significantly impacted by these toxicants, and these effects become more pronounced after their co-administration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Parvinder Singh
- Division of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, R S Pura, 181102, India
| | - Pawan Kumar Verma
- Division of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, R S Pura, 181102, India.
| | - Rajinder Raina
- Division of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, R S Pura, 181102, India
| | - Shilpa Sood
- Division of Veterinary Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, R S Pura, 181102, India
| | - Priyanka Sharma
- Division of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, R S Pura, 181102, India
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Sadiqul IM, Kabir SM, Ferdous Z, Mansura KM, Khalilur RM. Chronic exposure to quinalphos shows biochemical changes and genotoxicty in erythrocytes of silver barb, Barbonymus gonionotus. Interdiscip Toxicol 2018; 10:99-106. [PMID: 30174533 PMCID: PMC6107646 DOI: 10.1515/intox-2017-0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
An in vivo study was carried out on the freshwater fish Barbonymus gonionotus to evaluate the genotoxic effects of the organophosphate quinalphos. The fish were exposed to sub-lethal doses of quinalphos (0%, 10%, 25%, and 50% of LC50) for a period of 30 days. Analysis of biochemical characteristics (protein and lipid contents of different organs), nuclear abnormalities of erythrocytes (NAE) and morphological abnormalities of erythrocytes (MAE) were performed on peripheral erythrocytes sampled at post-treatment intervals of 0 and 30 days. The biochemical results revealed a significant dose-dependent decline in protein and lipid contents and increase in the frequencies of NAE as well as MAE. Our findings also confirmed that the morphological deformations of erythrocytes in addition to NAE on fish erythrocytes in vivo are effective tools in determining the potential genotoxicity of organophosphates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Islam M Sadiqul
- Department of Fisheries Biology & Genetics, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh
| | - Saimon Mohiful Kabir
- Department of Fisheries Biology & Genetics, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh
| | - Zannatul Ferdous
- Department of Fisheries Biology & Genetics, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh
| | - Khan Mst Mansura
- Department of Fisheries Biology & Genetics, Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh-2202, Bangladesh
| | - Rahman Md Khalilur
- Freshwater Station, Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute (BFRI), Mymensingh-2201, Bangladesh
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Subba Reddy GV, Rafi MM, Rubesh Kumar S, Khayalethu N, Muralidhara Rao D, Manjunatha B, Philip GH, Reddy BR. Optimization study of 2-hydroxyquinoxaline (2-HQ) biodegradation by Ochrobactrum sp. HQ1. 3 Biotech 2016; 6:51. [PMID: 28330121 PMCID: PMC4746200 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-015-0358-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2015] [Accepted: 08/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel aerobic gram-negative bacterial strain capable of utilizing 2-hydroxyquinoxaline (2-HQ) as sole source of carbon and energy was isolated from Indian agricultural soil and named as HQ1. Strain HQ1 was identified as Ochrobactrum sp. on the basis of morphology, physico-biochemical characteristics and 16S rRNA sequence analysis. The generation time of Ochrobactrum sp. HQ1 on 2-HQ at log phase is 0.71 h or 42.6 min. The degradation of 2-HQ by HQ1 under various physico-chemical parameters was analysed by HPLC and observed to be optimum with a high inoculum density (1.0 OD) at pH 7–8, temperatures 37–40°C and a high concentration of 2-HQ (500 ppm). Degradation of 2-HQ was also improved when additional nitrogen sources were used and this was attributed to the enhanced growth of the bacterium on the readily available nitrogen sources. Analysis of 2-HQ degradation by GC–MS resulted in elucidation of the degradation pathway for HQ1, a novel observation for aerobic Gram-negative bacteria. These findings are a possible indication of the application of HQ1 in the bioremediation of pesticide/metabolite contamination.
Collapse
|
5
|
Yang L, Han J, Liu W, Li J, Jiang L. Conversion of Inhibition Biosensing to Substrate-Like Biosensing for Quinalphos Selective Detection. Anal Chem 2015; 87:5270-7. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b00376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Limin Yang
- State Key
Laboratory of Heavy
Oil Processing and Center for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, Shandong 266555, P. R. China
| | - Juan Han
- State Key
Laboratory of Heavy
Oil Processing and Center for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, Shandong 266555, P. R. China
| | - Wei Liu
- State Key
Laboratory of Heavy
Oil Processing and Center for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, Shandong 266555, P. R. China
| | - Jiqiang Li
- State Key
Laboratory of Heavy
Oil Processing and Center for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, Shandong 266555, P. R. China
| | - Lei Jiang
- State Key
Laboratory of Heavy
Oil Processing and Center for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao, Shandong 266555, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Zerin T, Song HY, Kim YS. Quinalphos induced intracellular ROS generation and apoptosis in human alveolar A549 cells. Mol Cell Toxicol 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s13273-015-0008-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
7
|
Reddy GVS, Reddy BR, Tlou MG. Biodegradation of 2-hydroxyquinoxaline (2-HQ) by Bacillus sp. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2014; 278:100-107. [PMID: 24953941 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.05.080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Revised: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
An aerobic Gram +ve bacterial strain capable of utilizing 2-Hydroxyquinoxaline (2-HQ) as sole source of carbon and energy was isolated from Chrysanthemum indicum Indian agricultural soil and named as HQ2. On the basis of morphology, physico-biochemical characteristics and 16S rRNA sequence analysis, strain HQ2 was identified as Bacillus sp. The generation time of Bacillus sp. in log phase during growth on 2-HQ is 0.79 h or 47.4 min. The optimal conditions for 2-HQ degradation by Bacillus sp. were inoculum density of 1.0 OD, pH of 6-8, temperature of 37-45 °C and 2-HQ concentration of 500 ppm. Among the additional carbon and nitrogen sources, carbon sources did not influence the degradation rate of 2-HQ, but nitrogen sources-yeast extract marginally enhanced the rate of degradation of 2-HQ. GC-MS analysis of the culture Bacillus sp. grown on 2-HQ indicated the formation of dimers from 2 molecules of 2-hydroxyquinoxaline. The formation of dimer for degradation of 2-HQ by the culture appears to be the first report to our scientific knowledge.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- G V Subba Reddy
- Department of Microbiology, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapuram - 515 003, A.P., India; Faculty of Science, Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, PO Box-524, APK Campus, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa.
| | - B R Reddy
- Department of Microbiology, Sri Krishnadevaraya University, Anantapuram - 515 003, A.P., India
| | - M G Tlou
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, PO Box-524, APK Campus, Johannesburg 2006, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Kang TF, Xiong Y, Xue R, Cheng SY. Investigation of DNA Pesticide Interactions by Sensitive Electrochemiluminescence Method. ANAL LETT 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/00032719.2012.757702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
|
9
|
Subramaneyaan M, Jain S, Yadav C, Arora VK, Banerjee BD, Ahmed RS. Quinalphos induced oxidative stress and histoarcheitectural alterations in adult male albino rats. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY 2012; 34:673-678. [PMID: 23146591 DOI: 10.1016/j.etap.2012.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2012] [Revised: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 10/11/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Quinalphos is a synthetic organophosphate used as a broad spectrum insecticide and acaricide. The present study investigates the effect of three sub-lethal doses (0.52, 1.04, 2.6 mg/kg b.wt) of quinalphos for variable durations (15, 30 and 90 days) on oxidative stress and histopathological changes in adult male rats. Quinalphos treatment for 15 and 30 days resulted in a dose dependent significant increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity together with a concurrent decrease in ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP) and glutathione (GSH) content. Quinalphos treatment for 90 days also induced a significant increase in MDA levels and GST activity but the effect was not dose-dependent. Histopathological examination of liver revealed architectural disarray and dilatation of sinusoids, focal fatty changes, accumulation of eosinophils and single cell necrosis with increasing doses. However, spleen and kidney did not show any histological changes. Administration of quinalphos resulted in oxidative stress and free radical induced injury as evidenced by increased lipid peroxidation, decreased FRAP and histopathological changes in liver.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mythily Subramaneyaan
- Department of Biochemistry, University College of Medical Sciences and GTB Hospital, University of Delhi, Dilshad Garden, Delhi 110095, India
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Gupta B, Rani M, Salunke R, Kumar R. In vitro and in vivo studies on degradation of quinalphos in rats. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2012; 213-214:285-291. [PMID: 22356742 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.01.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2011] [Revised: 01/27/2012] [Accepted: 01/30/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A pharmacokinetic in vitro and in vivo degradation study has been carried out in rat to evaluate the deleterious effects of exposure to quinalphos on a target population. Degradation of quinalphos in simulated gastric and intestinal phases has been investigated. The metabolic intermediates of quinalphos in serum and urine of albino rats at different time intervals were identified after dosing the animals with 5 mg kg(-1) body weight. All the samples were lyophilised, extracted and analysed by HPLC and GC-MS. The rate of degradation of quinalphos was accelerated in the presence of the enzymes pepsin and pancreatin contained in the gastric and intestinal simulations, respectively. Quinalphos oxon, O-ethyl-O-quinoxalin-2-yl phosphoric acid, 2-hydroxy quinoxaline and ethyl phosphoric acid are among the important metabolites identified both in in vitro and in vivo investigations. In simulated in vitro study some isomerised derivatives which were missing in the blood and urine of treated animals were identified. This could possibly be either due to non-formation or faster decay of the isomerised derivatives because of slightly different conditions prevailing in the two cases. The results also indicate that the metabolites, 2-hydroxy quinoxaline and oxon, which are more toxic than the parent compound, seem to persist for a longer time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bina Gupta
- Analytical Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, 247667(UK) India.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Islam MA, Sakkas V, Albanis TA. Application of statistical design of experiment with desirability function for the removal of organophosphorus pesticide from aqueous solution by low-cost material. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2009; 170:230-238. [PMID: 19477587 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.04.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2008] [Revised: 04/23/2009] [Accepted: 04/27/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
This paper deals with the multiple response optimization for the removal of organophosphorus pesticide quinalphos [QP: O,O-diethyl O-2-quinoxalinyl phosphorothioate] from the aqueous solution onto low-cost material and tried to overcome the drawbacks of univariate optimization. Used tea leaves were used as low-cost adsorbent and batch equilibration method was followed for this study. A Box-Behnken design was used to develop response model and desirability function was then used for simultaneous optimization of all affecting parameters in order to achieve the highest removal% of quinalphos. The optimum conditions of factors predicted for quinalphos removal% were found to be: pH 8.83, concentration 7 mg L(-1) and dose 0.40 g. Under these conditions, maximum removal% of quinalphos was obtained 96.31%. Considering the above optimum conditions, the adsorption isotherms were developed and provided adsorption capacity of 196.07 microg g(-1) by using Langmuir equation, indicating that used tea leaves may be applied as a low-cost material for pesticides removal from aqueous matrices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Azharul Islam
- Department of Chemistry, University of Ioannina, Ioannina 45110, Greece
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Barata C, Alañon P, Gutierrez-Alonso S, Riva MC, Fernández C, Tarazona JV. A Daphnia magna feeding bioassay as a cost effective and ecological relevant sublethal toxicity test for Environmental Risk Assessment of toxic effluents. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2008; 405:78-86. [PMID: 18657849 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.06.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2008] [Revised: 06/16/2008] [Accepted: 06/17/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Environmental Risk Assessment of chemical products and effluents within EC countries require the use of cost effective standardized toxicity tests that in most cases are restricted to acute responses to high doses. Thus, subtle ecological effects are underestimated. Here we propose a short-term one day Daphnia magna feeding inhibition test as a cost effective and ecological relevant sublethal bioassay. The sensitivity and reliability of the proposed bioassay was tested in the laboratory against standardized bacteria, algae growth, D. magna and fish acute toxicity test by using 16 chemical mixture x water type combinations that included four different water types fortified with four complex chemical mixtures. Water types included ASTM hard water and three selected effluents diluted 1/10 in water to mimic worse field situations that many overexploited arid river ecosystems suffer during summer months when effluents are discharged into them with little dilution. The results obtained denoted a greater sensitivity of the proposed feeding bioassay in 51 out of 65 tests performed with an average sensitivity 50 fold greater than that of the standardized tests. The greater differences were obtained for mixtures that included narcotic chemicals and the lowest differences for those containing pesticides. Furthermore, feeding responses to the studied contaminant mixtures behaved differently to increasing TOC content than those based on bioluminescent bacteria and algae. Increasing TOC coming from sewage treated effluents decrease toxicity to the latter bioassays but increased those of D. magna feeding bioassays. These results empathize the need to include additional bioassays to monitor more accurately and realistically the toxicity of effluents or surface waters dominated by effluent discharges, a quite common situation in America and Mediterranean arid regions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Barata
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, IIQAB-CSIC, Barcelona, Spain.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Behrends A, Riediger S, Grube S, Poeggeler B, Haldar C, Hardeland R. Photocatalytic mechanisms of indoleamine destruction by the quinalphos metabolite 2-hydroxyquinoxaline: a study on melatonin and its precursors serotonin and N-acetylserotonin. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART. B, PESTICIDES, FOOD CONTAMINANTS, AND AGRICULTURAL WASTES 2007; 42:599-606. [PMID: 17701694 DOI: 10.1080/03601230701465437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
The redox-active quinalphos main metabolite, 2-hydroxyquinoxaline, is particularly effective under excitation by light. We have studied the photocatalytic destruction of melatonin and its precursors, because the cytoprotective indoleamine has been detected in high quantities in mammalian skin. In photooxidation reactions, in which melatonin, N-acetylserotonin and serotonin are destroyed by 2-hydroxyquinoxaline, the photocatalyst is virtually not consumed. Rates of melatonin and serotonin destruction are not changed by the singlet oxygen quencher 1,4-diazabicyclo-(2,2,2)-octane, indicating that this oxygen species is not involved in the primary reactions, so that the persistence of 2-hydroxyquinoxaline has to be explained by redox cycling. This should imply formation of an organic radical, presumably the quinoxaline-2-oxyl radical, from which 2-hydroxyquinoxaline is regenerated by electron abstraction from indolic radical scavengers. Electron donation by 2-hydroxyquinoxaline is demonstrated by reduction of the 2,2'-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzthiazolinyl-6-sulfonic acid) cation radical under ultrasound excitation. The compound 2-hydroxyquinoxaline interacts with the specific superoxide anion scavenger Tiron. Formation of oligomeric products from melatonin and serotonin is strongly inhibited by sodium dithionite. Products from photocatalytic indolamine conversion are predominantly dimers and oligomers. No kynuramines were detected in the case of serotonin oxidation, and melatonin's otherwise prevailing oxidation product N(1)-acetyl-N(2)-formyl-5-methoxykynuramine, another cytoprotective metabolite, is only formed in relatively small quantities. The proportion between products from melatonin is changed by 1,4-diazabicyclo-(2,2,2)-octane: singlet oxygen, also formed under the influence of excited 2-hydroxyquinoxaline, only affects secondary reactions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Behrends
- Institute of Zoology and Anthropology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|