Intraoperative radiation therapy in the treatment of pelvic gynecologic malignancies: a review of fifteen cases

The American Brachytherapy Society consensus statement on intraoperative radiation therapy

PURPOSE

Although radiation therapy has traditionally been delivered with external beam or brachytherapy, intraoperative radiation therapy (IORT) represents an alternative that may shorten the course of therapy, reduce toxicities, and improve patient satisfaction while potentially lowering the cost of care. At this time, there are limited evidence-based guidelines to assist clinicians with patient selection for IORT. As such, the American Brachytherapy Society presents a consensus statement on the use of IORT.

METHODS

Physicians and physicists with expertise in intraoperative radiation created a site-directed guideline for appropriate patient selection and utilization of IORT.

RESULTS

Several IORT techniques exist including radionuclide-based high-dose-rate, low-dose-rate, electron, and low-energy electronic. In breast cancer, IORT as monotherapy should only be used on prospective studies. IORT can be considered in the treatment of sarcomas with close/positive margins or recurrent sarcomas. IORT can be considered in conjunction with external beam radiotherapy for retroperitoneal sarcomas. IORT can be considered for colorectal malignancies with concern for positive margins and in the setting of recurrent gynecologic cancers. For thoracic, head and neck, and central nervous system malignancies, utilization of IORT should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis.

CONCLUSIONS

The present guidelines provide clinicians with a summary of current data regarding IORT by treatment site and guidelines for the appropriate patient selection and safe utilization of the technique. High-dose-rate, low-dose-rate brachytherapy methods are appropriate when IORT is to be delivered as are electron and low-energy based on the clinical scenario.

Intraoperative radiotherapy: review of techniques and results

Intraoperative radiotherapy (IORT) is a technique that involves precise delivery of a large dose of ionising radiation to the tumour or tumour bed during surgery. Direct visualisation of the tumour bed and ability to space out the normal tissues from the tumour bed allows maximisation of the dose to the tumour while minimising the dose to normal tissues. This results in an improved therapeutic ratio with IORT. Although it was introduced in the 1960s, it has seen a resurgence of popularity with the introduction of self-shielding mobile linear accelerators and low-kV IORT devices, which by eliminating the logistical issues of transport of the patient during surgery for radiotherapy or building a shielded operating room, has enabled its wider use in the community.

Electrons, low-kV X-rays and HDR brachytherapy are all different methods of IORT in current clinical use. Each method has its own unique set of advantages and disadvantages, its own set of indications where one may be better suited than the other, and each requires a specific kind of expertise.

IORT has demonstrated its efficacy in a wide variety of intra-abdominal tumours, recurrent colorectal cancers, recurrent gynaecological cancers, and soft-tissue tumours. Recently, it has emerged as an attractive treatment option for selected, early-stage breast cancer, owing to the ability to complete the entire course of radiotherapy during surgery. IORT has been used in a multitude of roles across these sites, for dose escalation (retroperitoneal sarcoma), EBRT dose de-escalation (paediatric tumours), as sole radiation modality (early breast cancers) and as a re-irradiation modality (recurrent rectal and gynaecological cancers).

This article aims to provide a review of the rationale, techniques, and outcomes for IORT across different sites relevant to current clinical practice.

Intraoperative radiotherapy in gynaecological and genito-urinary malignancies: focus on endometrial, cervical, renal, bladder and prostate cancers

Intraoperative radiotherapy (IORT) refers to the delivery of a single radiation dose to a limited volume of tissue during a surgical procedure. A literature review was performed to analyze the role of IORT in gynaecological and genito-urinary cancer including endometrial, cervical, renal, bladder and prostate cancers.

Literature search was performed by Pubmed and Scopus, using the words “intraoperative radiotherapy/IORT”, “gynaecological cancer”, “uterine/endometrial cancer”, “cervical/cervix cancer”, “renal/kidney cancer”, “bladder cancer” and “prostate cancer”. Forty-seven articles were selected from the search databases, analyzed and briefly described.

Literature data show that IORT has been used to optimize local control rate in genito-urinary tumours mainly in retrospective studies. The results suggest that IORT could be advantageous in the setting of locally advanced and recurrent disease although further prospective trials are needed to confirm this findings.

[Surprise in abrasion diagnostics]

Typical localizations of gynecological squamous cell carcinomas are the cervix, vulva and vagina and are therefore not uncommonly diagnosed in curettages. A differentiation from reactive hyperplastic alterations with a possible invasiveness in samples taken from the surface of the special type of well-differentiated verrucous squamous cell carcinoma can be difficult. This pitfall of such a tumor is presented in the case described here with corresponding diagnostic difficulties.

Intraoperative Electron Beam Radiotherapy (IOERT) in the management of locally advanced or recurrent cervical cancer

Background

To report outcomes in women with locally recurrent or advanced cervical cancer who received intraoperative electron beam radiotherapy (IOERT) as a component of therapy.

Methods

From 1983 to 2010, 86 patients with locally recurrent (n = 73, 85%) or primary advanced (n = 13, 15%) cervical cancer received IOERT following surgery. Common surgeries included pelvic exenteration (n = 26; 30%) or sidewall resection (n = 22; 26%). The median IOERT dose was 15 Gy (range, 6.25-25 Gy). Sixty-one patients (71%) received perioperative external beam radiotherapy (EBRT; median dose, 45 Gy). Forty-one patients (48%) received perioperative chemotherapy.

Results

Median follow-up was 2.7 years (range, 0.1-25.5 years). Resections were classified as R0 (n = 35, 41%), R1 (n = 30, 35%), or R2 (n = 21, 24%). Cumulative incidences of central (within the IOERT field) and locoregional relapse at 3 years were 23 and 38%, respectively. The 3-year cumulative incidence of distant relapse was 43%. Median survival was 15 months, and 3-year Kaplan-Meier estimates of cause-specific (CSS) and overall survival (OS) were 31 and 25%, respectively. On multivariate analysis, pelvic exenteration (p = 0.02) and perioperative EBRT (p = 0.009) were associated with improved central control in patients with recurrent disease. Recurrence within 6 months of initial therapy was associated with reduced CSS (p = 0.001). Common IOERT-related toxicities included peripheral neuropathy (n = 16), ureteral stenosis (n = 4), and bowel fistula/perforation (n = 4). Eleven of 16 patients with neuropathy required long-term pain medication.

Conclusions

Long-term survival is possible with combined modality therapy including IOERT for advanced cervical cancer. Distant relapse is common, yet a significant number of patients experienced local progression in spite of aggressive treatment. In addition to consideration of disease- and treatment-related morbidity, other factors to be considered when selecting patients for this approach include the time interval from initial therapy to recurrence and whether the patient is able to receive perioperative EBRT and pelvic exenteration in addition to IOERT.

New developments in the surgical therapy of cervical carcinoma

For almost a century abdominal radical hysterectomy has been the standard surgical treatment of early-stage macroscopic carcinoma of the uterine cervix. The excessive parametrial resection of the original procedures of Wertheim, Okabayashi, and Meigs has later been "tailored" to tumor extent. Systematic pelvic and eventually periaortic lymph node dissection is performed to identify and treat regional disease. Adjuvant (chemo)radiation therapy is liberally added to improve locoregional tumor control when histopathological risk factors are present. The therapeutic index of the current surgical treatment, particularly if combined with radiation, appears to be inferior to that of primary chemoradiation as an oncologically equivalent therapeutic alternative. Several avenues of new conceptual and technical developments have been used since the 1990s with the goal of improving the therapeutic index. These are: surgical staging, including sentinel node biopsy and nodal debulking; minimal access and recently robotic radical hysterectomy; fertility-preserving surgery; nerve-sparing radical hysterectomy; total mesometrial resection based on developmentally defined surgical anatomy; and supraradical hysterectomy. The superiority of these new developments over the standard treatment remains to be demonstrated by controlled prospective trials. Multimodality therapy including surgery for locally advanced disease represents another area of clinical research. Both neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by radical surgery, with or without adjuvant radiation, and completion surgery after (chemo)radiation are feasible and have to be compared to primary chemoradiation as the new nonsurgical treatment standard. Surgical treatment of postirradiation persisting or recurrent cervical carcinoma has been traditionally limited to pelvic exenteration for central disease. Applying the principle of developmentally derived anatomical compartments increases R0 resectability. The laterally extended endopelvic resection allows even the extirpation of a subset of visceral pelvic side wall tumors with clear margins. Many questions regarding the indication for these "ultraradical" operations, the surgery of irradiated tissues, and the optimal reconstructive procedures are still open and demand multi-institutional controlled trials to be answered.

Long-Term Survivors Using Intraoperative Radiotherapy for Recurrent Gynecologic Malignancies

PURPOSE

To analyze the outcomes of therapy and identify prognostic factors for patients treated with surgery followed by intraoperative radiotherapy (IORT) for gynecologic malignancies at a single institution.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

We performed a retrospective review of 36 consecutive patients treated with IORT to 44 sites with mean follow-up of 50 months. The primary site was the cervix in 47%, endometrium in 31%, vulva in 14%, vagina in 6%, and fallopian tubes in 3%. Previous RT had failed in 72% of patients, and 89% had recurrent disease. Of 38 IORT sessions, 84% included maximal cytoreductive surgery, including 18% exenterations. The mean age was 52 years (range, 30-74), mean tumor size was 5 cm (range, 0.5-12), previous disease-free interval was 32 months (range, 0-177), and mean IORT dose was 1,152 cGy (range, 600-1,750). RT and systemic therapy after IORT were given to 53% and 24% of the cohort, respectively. The outcomes measured were locoregional control (LRC), distant metastasis-free survival (DMFS), disease-specific survival (DSS), and treatment-related complications.

RESULTS

The Kaplan-Meier 5-year LRC, DMFS, and DSS probability for the whole group was 44%, 51%, and 47%, respectively. For cervical cancer patients, the Kaplan-Meier 5-year LRC, DMFS, and DSS estimate was 45%, 60%, and 46%, respectively. The prognostic factors found on multivariate analysis (p <or= 0.05) were the disease-free interval for LRC, tumor size for DMFS, and cervical primary, previous surgery, and locoregional relapse for DSS. Our cohort had 10 Grade 3-4 complications associated with treatment (surgery and IORT) and a Kaplan-Meier 5-year Grade 3-4 complication-free survival rate of 72%.

CONCLUSIONS

Survival for pelvic recurrence of gynecologic cancer is poor (range, 0-25%). IORT after surgery seems to confer long-term local control in carefully selected patients.

intraoperative radiation therapy part 2. Clinical results

Intraoperative radiation therapy (IORT) has been used for over 30 years in Asia, Europe and America as a supplementary activity in the treatment of cancer patients with promising results. Modern IORT is carried out with electron beams (IOERT) produced by a linear accelerator generally used for external beam irradiation (EBRT) or a specialized mobile electron accelerator. HDR brachytherapy (HDR-IORT) has also been applied on selected locations. Retrospective analysis of clinical experiences in cancer sites such as operable pancreatic tumour, locally advanced/recurrent rectal cancer, head and neck carcinomas, sarcomas and cervical cancer are consistent with local tumour control promotion compared to similar clinical experiences without IORT. New emerging indications such as the treatment of breast cancer are presented. The IORT component of the therapeutical approach allows intensification of the total radiation dose without additional exposure of healthy tissues and improves dose-deposit homogeneity and precision. Results of the application of IORT on selected disease sites are presented with an analysis on future possibilities. To improve the methodology, clinical trials are required with multivariate analysis including patient, tumour and treatment characteristics, prospective evaluation of early and late toxicity, patterns of tumour recurrence and overall patient outcome.

Radical pelvic resection and intraoperative radiation therapy for recurrent endometrial cancer: Technique and analysis of outcomes

OBJECTIVE

To describe the technique and assess outcomes and morbidity following radical resection combined with intraoperative electron radiation therapy (IOERT) in patients with recurrent endometrial cancer.

METHODS

From 1986 to 2002, 25 patients received treatment including radical resection and IOERT for recurrent endometrioid, endometrial cancer. Relevant clinical information was extracted through retrospective chart review.

RESULTS

Treatment prior to referral included radiation in 56% and either a secondary surgery or chemotherapy in 48%. External radiation (EBRT) was administered in addition to IOERT in 84%. Radical procedures performed at the time of IOERT included resection of the pelvic sidewall en bloc with the obturator nerve, external iliac vein, psoas, iliacus, or obturator internus muscles, ureter, or boney ileum. Seven patients required exenteration in combination with resection of the pelvic sidewall. The median IOERT dose was 1500 cGy (range 1000-2500 cGy). Overall five-year survival was 47% vs. 71% for those with a gross total resection but close margins. Two patients with recurrences limited to the para-aortic area are alive without evidence of disease at 54 and 71 months. Proportional hazards modeling showed concurrent EBRT, tumor size after resection, grade, and age to be associated with improved survival. The most common complications were peripheral neuropathy, functional ureteral obstruction, and fistula formation.

CONCLUSIONS

With an aggressive treatment approach including radical resection combined with IOERT, long-term survival is possible in a significant number of patients with localized recurrent endometrial cancer. Preoperative radiation paired with complete surgical resection utilizing extended procedures is paramount to achieving optimal outcomes.

Surgically (laparotomy/laparoscopy) guided placement of high dose rate interstitial irradiation catheters (LG-HDRT): Technique and outcome

OBJECTIVE

To describe and evaluate the technique and the clinical outcome of a new modality for the treatment of women with persistent or recurrent pelvic malignancies utilizing surgically (laparotomy or laparoscopic) guided high dose rate (HDR) catheters to complete high dose rate interstitial irradiation therapy (LG-HDRT).

METHODS

Between 6/2000 and 6/2004, 14 women with histologic evidence of postradiation persistent (3 patients) or recurrent (11 patients) pelvic disease underwent LG-HDRT. Five patients (36%) received treatment for a 2nd, 3rd or 4th recurrence. Preoperative clinical and radiologic evaluation to exclude evidence of extrapelvic disease was routine. Initial intraoperative evaluation included intraabdominal inspection and or biopsy to determine the extent of disease. A two "team" approach was used to place the 100 cm Teflon after loading HDR catheters. Each catheter had its open ends closed with bone wax prior to placement. Using a 14 gauge intravenous catheter as a guide, each HDR catheter was individually placed transvaginally. The tumor bed (treatment volume) was marked circumferentially with clips to facilitate treatment planning. Dosimetry was typically completed on the day of surgery and HDR therapy was started within the initial 24 postoperative hours. The catheters were removed transvaginally, without anesthesia following completion of therapy.

RESULTS

Mean patient age was 63.1 years and weight was 138.2 lb. Squamous cell cancer of the vagina or cervix was the most common (64%) diagnosis. The mean time from initial diagnosis to LG-HDRT was 67.9 months. The procedure was completed laparoscopically in 71% of patients, with 4 patients requiring laparotomy (3 conversions from laparoscopy). The mean duration of surgery was 94.9 min and the mean hospital stay was 4.8 days. Only 2 patients (14%) were discharged prior to the completion of therapy. The mean number of catheters placed was 6.1 and the mean dose delivered was 20 Gy over a mean of 5 fractions. There were no major intraoperative complications. Postradiation complications were limited to DVT (1), bladder bleeding (1), </=grade 2 gastrointestinal disturbances (3) and vulvovaginal desquamation (1). Overall posttreatment survival (mean 20.75 months) has been excellent with only 2 local recurrences and one patient dead of disease.

CONCLUSION

The efficacy of this treatment technique as demonstrated by the superb rate of local control (86%) and mean overall survival of 20.75 months compares favorably with other radiation or surgical treatment modalities in this population. Combined with the relative absence of morbidity, even when treating women following multiple recurrences suggests that LG-HDRT a viable treatment option for many women with local, postradiation persistent or recurrent pelvic cancer.

Intraoperative radiation therapy in recurrent ovarian cancer

PURPOSE

To evaluate disease outcomes and complications in patients with recurrent ovarian cancer treated with cytoreductive surgery and intraoperative radiation therapy (IORT).

METHODS AND MATERIALS

A retrospective study of 24 consecutive patients with ovarian carcinoma who underwent secondary cytoreduction and intraoperative radiation therapy at our institution between 1994 and 2002 was conducted. After optimal cytoreductive surgery, IORT was delivered with orthovoltage X-rays (200 kVp) using individually sized and beveled cone applications. Outcomes measures were local control of disease, progression-free interval, overall survival, and treatment-related complications.

RESULTS

Of these 24 patients, 22 were available for follow-up analysis. Additional treatment at the time of and after IORT included whole abdominopelvic radiation, 9; pelvic or locoregional radiation, 5; chemotherapy, 6; and no adjuvant treatment, 2. IORT doses ranged from 9-14 Gy (median, 12 Gy). The anatomic sites treated were pelvis (sidewalls, vaginal cuff, presacral area, anterior pubis), para-aortic and paracaval lymph node beds, inguinal region, or porta hepatitis. At a median follow-up of 24 months, 5 patients remain free of disease, whereas 17 patients have recurred, of whom 4 are alive with disease and 13 died from disease. Five patients recurred within the radiation fields for a locoregional relapse rate of 32% and 12 patients recurred at distant sites with a median time to recurrence of 13.7 months. Five-year overall survival was 22% with a median survival of 26 months from time of IORT. Nine patients (41%) experienced Grade 3 toxicities from their treatments.

CONCLUSION

In carefully selected patients with locally recurrent ovarian cancer, combined IORT and tumor reductive surgery is reasonably tolerated and may contribute to achieving local control and disease palliation.

Intraoperative radiation therapy in the management of gynecologic and genitourinary malignancies

Women with locally advanced primary or recurrent gynecologic malignancies have a poor prognosis. The doses of external radiation necessary to treat gross or microscopic recurrent disease in patients previously irradiated exceed the doses tolerated by normal tissue [1,3-5]. IORT has been added to the treatment armamentarium in this group of patients to maximize local control and minimize the radiation exposure to dose-limiting surrounding structures. In addition, IORT may improve the long-term local control and the overall survival rates in women with pelvic sidewall or para-aortic nodal recurrence [1,4,5]. The most encouraging results are seen in cases of microscopic residual disease following surgical debulking [4,6]. In gynecologic malignancies, IORT has served to reiterate the importance of optimal surgical resection. Higher 5-year disease-free and overall survival rates have been documented in women who have microscopic residual disease, compared with those who have gross residual disease [1,3-6]. IORT in the management of GU malignancies has not been used extensively. In RCC, where surgery alone often results in suboptimal treatment results, IORT seems to be well tolerated and controls local disease [2,27,29,30]. Because of the chemoresistant nature of RCC, IORT may play an important role in the future in the management of locally advanced and recurrent RCC. In bladder cancer, IORT had been used in combination with chemotherapy and EBRT, as part of bladder-sparing protocols. The data suggest that IORT in this patient population is also well tolerated, and may become more widely used as less radical surgical procedures gain clinical importance. IORT in the treatment of prostate and testicular cancers has not been used frequently, given the highly efficacious treatment modalities currently available to treat these malignancies. A review of institutional experiences with IORT may allow the establishment of guidelines for patient selection. These criteria, in turn, may be useful in the design of clinical trials. The construction, execution, and evaluation of clinical trials are mandatory to adequately assess the role of IORT in the treatment of patients with gynecologic and GU malignancies.

Endometrial cancer

OBJECTIVES

To provide an update for nurses involved in the care of women at risk or being treated for endometrial cancer.

DATA SOURCES

Review articles, research reports, and medical and nursing text-books.

CONCLUSIONS

Endometrial cancer is the most common gynecologic malignancy. Although most women with endometrial cancer present with early stage disease and have an excellent chance of cure, approximately 6,600 women in the United States are expected to die from the disease in 2002. Treatment of patients with advanced or recurrent disease remains challenging, with no proven best standard of treatment.

IMPLICATIONS FOR NURSING PRACTICE

Nursing plays an important role in prevention and early detection of endometrial cancer, patient education, patient care, and rehabilitation.