Analysis of the roles of tRNA structure, ribosomal protein L9, and the bacteriophage T4 gene 60 bypassing signals during ribosome slippage on mRNA

Mechanisms and Delivery of tRNA Therapeutics

Transfer ribonucleic acid (tRNA) therapeutics will provide personalized and mutation specific medicines to treat human genetic diseases for which no cures currently exist. The tRNAs are a family of adaptor molecules that interpret the nucleic acid sequences in our genes into the amino acid sequences of proteins that dictate cell function. Humans encode more than 600 tRNA genes. Interestingly, even healthy individuals contain some mutant tRNAs that make mistakes. Missense suppressor tRNAs insert the wrong amino acid in proteins, and nonsense suppressor tRNAs read through premature stop signals to generate full length proteins. Mutations that underlie many human diseases, including neurodegenerative diseases, cancers, and diverse rare genetic disorders, result from missense or nonsense mutations. Thus, specific tRNA variants can be strategically deployed as therapeutic agents to correct genetic defects. We review the mechanisms of tRNA therapeutic activity, the nature of the therapeutic window for nonsense and missense suppression as well as wild-type tRNA supplementation. We discuss the challenges and promises of delivering tRNAs as synthetic RNAs or as gene therapies. Together, tRNA medicines will provide novel treatments for common and rare genetic diseases in humans.

Extraribosomal Functions of Bacterial Ribosomal Proteins-An Update, 2023

Ribosomal proteins (r-proteins) are abundant, highly conserved, and multifaceted cellular proteins in all domains of life. Most r-proteins have RNA-binding properties and can form protein-protein contacts. Bacterial r-proteins govern the co-transcriptional rRNA folding during ribosome assembly and participate in the formation of the ribosome functional sites, such as the mRNA-binding site, tRNA-binding sites, the peptidyl transferase center, and the protein exit tunnel. In addition to their primary role in a cell as integral components of the protein synthesis machinery, many r-proteins can function beyond the ribosome (the phenomenon known as moonlighting), acting either as individual regulatory proteins or in complexes with various cellular components. The extraribosomal activities of r-proteins have been studied over the decades. In the past decade, our understanding of r-protein functions has advanced significantly due to intensive studies on ribosomes and gene expression mechanisms not only in model bacteria like Escherichia coli or Bacillus subtilis but also in little-explored bacterial species from various phyla. The aim of this review is to update information on the multiple functions of r-proteins in bacteria.

Systematic analysis of nonprogrammed frameshift suppression in E. coli via translational tiling proteomics

The synthesis of proteins as encoded in the genome depends critically on translational fidelity. Nevertheless, errors inevitably occur, and those that result in reading frame shifts are particularly consequential because the resulting polypeptides are typically nonfunctional. Despite the generally maladaptive impact of such errors, the proper decoding of certain mRNAs, including many viral mRNAs, depends on a process known as programmed ribosomal frameshifting. The fact that these programmed events, commonly involving a shift to the -1 frame, occur at specific evolutionarily optimized "slippery" sites has facilitated mechanistic investigation. By contrast, less is known about the scope and nature of error (i.e., nonprogrammed) frameshifting. Here, we examine error frameshifting by monitoring spontaneous frameshift events that suppress the effects of single base pair deletions affecting two unrelated test proteins. To map the precise sites of frameshifting, we developed a targeted mass spectrometry-based method called "translational tiling proteomics" for interrogating the full set of possible -1 slippage events that could produce the observed frameshift suppression. Surprisingly, such events occur at many sites along the transcripts, involving up to one half of the available codons. Only a subset of these resembled canonical "slippery" sites, implicating alternative mechanisms potentially involving noncognate mispairing events. Additionally, the aggregate frequency of these events (ranging from 1 to 10% in our test cases) was higher than we might have anticipated. Our findings point to an unexpected degree of mechanistic diversity among ribosomal frameshifting events and suggest that frameshifted products may contribute more significantly to the proteome than generally assumed.

Genome-wide screening reveals metabolic regulation of stop-codon readthrough by cyclic AMP

Translational fidelity is critical for microbial fitness, survival and stress responses. Much remains unknown about the genetic and environmental control of translational fidelity and its single-cell heterogeneity. In this study, we used a high-throughput fluorescence-based assay to screen a knock-out library of Escherichia coli and identified over 20 genes critical for stop-codon readthrough. Most of these identified genes were not previously known to affect translational fidelity. Intriguingly, we show that several genes controlling metabolism, including cyaA and crp, enhance stop-codon readthrough. CyaA catalyzes the synthesis of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Combining RNA sequencing, metabolomics and biochemical analyses, we show that deleting cyaA impairs amino acid catabolism and production of ATP, thus repressing the transcription of rRNAs and tRNAs to decrease readthrough. Single-cell analyses further show that cAMP is a major driver of heterogeneity in stop-codon readthrough and rRNA expression. Our results highlight that carbon metabolism is tightly coupled with stop-codon readthrough.

The translating bacterial ribosome at 1.55 Å resolution generated by cryo-EM imaging services

Our understanding of protein synthesis has been conceptualised around the structure and function of the bacterial ribosome. This complex macromolecular machine is the target of important antimicrobial drugs, an integral line of defence against infectious diseases. Here, we describe how open access to cryo-electron microscopy facilities combined with bespoke user support enabled structural determination of the translating ribosome from Escherichia coli at 1.55 Å resolution. The obtained structures allow for direct determination of the rRNA sequence to identify ribosome polymorphism sites in the E. coli strain used in this study and enable interpretation of the ribosomal active and peripheral sites at unprecedented resolution. This includes scarcely populated chimeric hybrid states of the ribosome engaged in several tRNA translocation steps resolved at ~2 Å resolution. The current map not only improves our understanding of protein synthesis but also allows for more precise structure-based drug design of antibiotics to tackle rising bacterial resistance.

Visualizing translation dynamics at atomic detail inside a bacterial cell

Translation is the fundamental process of protein synthesis and is catalysed by the ribosome in all living cells1. Here we use advances in cryo-electron tomography and sub-tomogram analysis2,3 to visualize the structural dynamics of translation inside the bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. To interpret the functional states in detail, we first obtain a high-resolution in-cell average map of all translating ribosomes and build an atomic model for the M. pneumoniae ribosome that reveals distinct extensions of ribosomal proteins. Classification then resolves 13 ribosome states that differ in their conformation and composition. These recapitulate major states that were previously resolved in vitro, and reflect intermediates during active translation. On the basis of these states, we animate translation elongation inside native cells and show how antibiotics reshape the cellular translation landscapes. During translation elongation, ribosomes often assemble in defined three-dimensional arrangements to form polysomes4. By mapping the intracellular organization of translating ribosomes, we show that their association into polysomes involves a local coordination mechanism that is mediated by the ribosomal protein L9. We propose that an extended conformation of L9 within polysomes mitigates collisions to facilitate translation fidelity. Our work thus demonstrates the feasibility of visualizing molecular processes at atomic detail inside cells.

Genetic Code Expansion Through Quadruplet Codon Decoding

Noncanonical amino acid mutagenesis has emerged as a powerful tool for the study of protein structure and function. While triplet nonsense codons, especially the amber codon, have been widely employed, quadruplet codons have attracted attention for the potential of creating additional blank codons for noncanonical amino acids mutagenesis. In this review, we discuss methodologies and applications of quadruplet codon decoding in genetic code expansion both in vitro and in vivo.

Polysomes Bypass a 50-Nucleotide Coding Gap Less Efficiently Than Monosomes Due to Attenuation of a 5' mRNA Stem-Loop and Enhanced Drop-off

Efficient translational bypassing of a 50-nt non-coding gap in a phage T4 topoisomerase subunit gene (gp60) requires several recoding signals. Here we investigate the function of the mRNA stem–loop 5′ of the take-off codon, as well as the importance of ribosome loading density on the mRNA for efficient bypassing. We show that polysomes are less efficient at mediating bypassing than monosomes, both in vitro and in vivo, due to their preventing formation of a stem–loop 5′ of the take-off codon and allowing greater peptidyl-tRNA drop off. A ribosome profiling analysis of phage T4-infected Escherichia coli yielded protected mRNA fragments within the normal size range derived from ribosomes stalled at the take-off codon. However, ribosomes at this position also yielded some 53-nucleotide fragments, 16 longer. These were due to protection of the nucleotides that form the 5′ stem–loop. NMR shows that the 5′ stem–loop is highly dynamic. The importance of different nucleotides in the 5′ stem–loop is revealed by mutagenesis studies. These data highlight the significance of the 5′ stem–loop for the 50-nt bypassing and further enhance appreciation of relevance of the extent of ribosome loading for recoding.

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Monosomes are more efficient than polysome in mediating 50-nt translational bypassing.

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A 5′ mRNA stem–loop facilitates translational bypassing by monosomes.

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Ribosome profiling yields an extra-long, 53-nt, protected fragment of mRNA.

Structural basis for ribosome recycling by RRF and tRNA

The bacterial ribosome is recycled into subunits by two conserved proteins, elongation factor G (EF-G) and the ribosome recycling factor (RRF). The molecular basis for ribosome recycling by RRF and EF-G remains unclear. Here, we report the crystal structure of a posttermination Thermus thermophilus 70S ribosome complexed with EF-G, RRF and two transfer RNAs at a resolution of 3.5 Å. The deacylated tRNA in the peptidyl (P) site moves into a previously unsuspected state of binding (peptidyl/recycling, p/R) that is analogous to that seen during initiation. The terminal end of the p/R-tRNA forms nonfavorable contacts with the 50S subunit while RRF wedges next to central inter-subunit bridges, illuminating the active roles of tRNA and RRF in dissociation of ribosomal subunits. The structure uncovers a missing snapshot of tRNA as it transits between the P and exit (E) sites, providing insights into the mechanisms of ribosome recycling and tRNA translocation.

Ribosome collisions alter frameshifting at translational reprogramming motifs in bacterial mRNAs

Ribosomes move along mRNAs in 3-nucleotide steps as they interpret codons that specify which amino acid is required at each position in the protein. There are multiple examples of genes with DNA sequences that do not match the produced proteins because ribosomes move to a new reading frame in the message before finishing translation (so-called frameshifting). This report shows that, when ribosomes stall at mRNA regions prone to cause frameshifting events, trailing ribosomes that collide with them can significantly change the outcome and potentially regulate protein production. This work highlights the principle that biological macromolecules do not function in isolation, and it provides an example of how physical interactions between neighboring complexes can be used to augment their performance.

Translational frameshifting involves the repositioning of ribosomes on their messages into decoding frames that differ from those dictated during initiation. Some messenger RNAs (mRNAs) contain motifs that promote deliberate frameshifting to regulate production of the encoded proteins. The mechanisms of frameshifting have been investigated in many systems, and the resulting models generally involve single ribosomes responding to stimulator sequences in their engaged mRNAs. We discovered that the abundance of ribosomes on messages containing the IS3, dnaX, and prfB frameshift motifs significantly influences the levels of frameshifting. We show that this phenomenon results from ribosome collisions that occur during translational stalling, which can alter frameshifting in both the stalled and trailing ribosomes. Bacteria missing ribosomal protein bL9 are known to exhibit a reduction in reading frame maintenance and to have a strong dependence on elongation factor P (EFP). We discovered that ribosomes lacking bL9 become compacted closer together during collisions and that the E-sites of the stalled ribosomes appear to become blocked, which suggests subsequent transpeptidation in transiently stalled ribosomes may become compromised in the absence of bL9. In addition, we determined that bL9 can suppress frameshifting of its host ribosome, likely by regulating E-site dynamics. These findings provide mechanistic insight into the behavior of colliding ribosomes during translation and suggest naturally occurring frameshift elements may be regulated by the abundance of ribosomes relative to an mRNA pool.

Genome sequence of the opportunistic human pathogen Magnusiomyces capitatus

The yeast Magnusiomyces capitatus is an opportunistic human pathogen causing rare yet severe infections, especially in patients with hematological malignancies. Here, we report the 20.2 megabase genome sequence of an environmental strain of this species as well as the genome sequences of eight additional isolates from human and animal sources providing an insight into intraspecies variation. The distribution of single-nucleotide variants is indicative of genetic recombination events, supporting evidence for sexual reproduction in this heterothallic yeast. Using RNAseq-aided annotation, we identified genes for 6518 proteins including several expanded families such as kexin proteases and Hsp70 molecular chaperones. Several of these families are potentially associated with the ability of M. capitatus to infect and colonize humans. For the purpose of comparative analysis, we also determined the genome sequence of a closely related yeast, Magnusiomyces ingens. The genome sequences of M. capitatus and M. ingens exhibit many distinct features and represent a basis for further comparative and functional studies.

Mechanism of tRNA-mediated +1 ribosomal frameshifting

Accurate translation of the genetic code is critical to ensure expression of proteins with correct amino acid sequences. Certain tRNAs can cause a shift out of frame (i.e., frameshifting) due to imbalances in tRNA concentrations, lack of tRNA modifications or insertions or deletions in tRNAs (called frameshift suppressors). Here, we determined the structural basis for how frameshift-suppressor tRNA^SufA6 (a derivative of tRNA^Pro) reprograms the mRNA frame to translate a 4-nt codon when bound to the bacterial ribosome. After decoding at the aminoacyl (A) site, the crystal structure of the anticodon stem-loop of tRNA^SufA6 bound in the peptidyl (P) site reveals ASL conformational changes that allow for recoding into the +1 mRNA frame. Furthermore, a crystal structure of full-length tRNA^SufA6 programmed in the P site shows extensive conformational rearrangements of the 30S head and body domains similar to what is observed in a translocation intermediate state containing elongation factor G (EF-G). The 30S movement positions tRNA^SufA6 toward the 30S exit (E) site disrupting key 16S rRNA-mRNA interactions that typically define the mRNA frame. In summary, this tRNA-induced 30S domain change in the absence of EF-G causes the ribosome to lose its grip on the mRNA and uncouples the canonical forward movement of the tRNAs during elongation.

Phosphorylation of bacterial L9 and its functional implication in response to starvation stress

The bacterial L9 (bL9) protein expressed and purified from Escherichia coli is stably phosphorylated. We mapped seven Ser/Thr phosphorylation sites, all of which but one are located at the carboxyl-terminal domain (CTD). When a histidine tag is fused to the C-terminus, bL9 is no longer phosphorylated. Phosphorylation of bL9 causes complete disordering of its CTD and helps cell survival under nutrient-limiting conditions. Previous structural studies of the ribosome have shown that bL9 exhibits two distinct conformations, one of which competes with binding of RelA to the 30s rRNA and prevents RelA activation. Taken together, we suggest that the flexibility of the bL9 CTD enabled by phosphorylation would remove the steric hindrance, serving as a previously unknown mechanism to regulate RelA function and help cell survival under starvation stress.

Ribosome rearrangements at the onset of translational bypassing

Bypassing is a recoding event that leads to the translation of two distal open reading frames into a single polypeptide chain. We present the structure of a translating ribosome stalled at the bypassing take-off site of gene 60 of bacteriophage T4. The nascent peptide in the exit tunnel anchors the P-site peptidyl-tRNA^Gly to the ribosome and locks an inactive conformation of the peptidyl transferase center (PTC). The mRNA forms a short dynamic hairpin in the decoding site. The ribosomal subunits adopt a rolling conformation in which the rotation of the small subunit around its long axis causes the opening of the A-site region. Together, PTC conformation and mRNA structure safeguard against premature termination and read-through of the stop codon and reconfigure the ribosome to a state poised for take-off and sliding along the noncoding mRNA gap.

Ribosomal frameshifting and transcriptional slippage: From genetic steganography and cryptography to adventitious use

Genetic decoding is not ‘frozen’ as was earlier thought, but dynamic. One facet of this is frameshifting that often results in synthesis of a C-terminal region encoded by a new frame. Ribosomal frameshifting is utilized for the synthesis of additional products, for regulatory purposes and for translational ‘correction’ of problem or ‘savior’ indels. Utilization for synthesis of additional products occurs prominently in the decoding of mobile chromosomal element and viral genomes. One class of regulatory frameshifting of stable chromosomal genes governs cellular polyamine levels from yeasts to humans. In many cases of productively utilized frameshifting, the proportion of ribosomes that frameshift at a shift-prone site is enhanced by specific nascent peptide or mRNA context features. Such mRNA signals, which can be 5′ or 3′ of the shift site or both, can act by pairing with ribosomal RNA or as stem loops or pseudoknots even with one component being 4 kb 3′ from the shift site. Transcriptional realignment at slippage-prone sequences also generates productively utilized products encoded trans-frame with respect to the genomic sequence. This too can be enhanced by nucleic acid structure. Together with dynamic codon redefinition, frameshifting is one of the forms of recoding that enriches gene expression.

Functional Importance of Mobile Ribosomal Proteins

Although the dynamic motions and peptidyl transferase activity seem to be embedded in the rRNAs, the ribosome contains more than 50 ribosomal proteins (r-proteins), whose functions remain largely elusive. Also, the precise forms of some of these r-proteins, as being part of the ribosome, are not structurally solved due to their high flexibility, which hinders the efforts in their functional elucidation. Owing to recent advances in cryo-electron microscopy, single-molecule techniques, and theoretical modeling, much has been learned about the dynamics of these r-proteins. Surprisingly, allosteric regulations have been found in between spatially separated components as distant as those in the opposite sides of the ribosome. Here, we focus on the functional roles and intricate regulations of the mobile L1 and L12 stalks and L9 and S1 proteins. Conformational flexibility also enables versatile functions for r-proteins beyond translation. The arrangement of r-proteins may be under evolutionary pressure that fine-tunes mass distributions for optimal structural dynamics and catalytic activity of the ribosome.

Reinitiation at non-canonical start codons leads to leak expression when incorporating unnatural amino acids

With the rapid development of a continuously growing selection of unnatural amino acids (UAAs), UAA insertion becomes increasingly popular for investigating proteins. However, it can prove problematic to ensure the homogeneity of the expressed proteins, when homogeneity is compromised by “leak expression”. Here, we show that leak expression may be mediated by reinitiation and can result in unwanted proteins when stop codons for UAA insertion are mutated into the N-terminus of proteins. We demonstrate that up to 25% of leak expression occurs through reinitiation in the Shaker-Kv channel when stop codons are located within the first 70 amino acids. Several non-canonical start codons were identified as translation reinitaition sites, and by removing the start codons, we were able to decrease leak expression to less than 1%. Our study emphasizes the need to carefully inspect for leak expression when inserting UAAs and demonstrates how leak expression can be eliminated.

Programmed translational bypassing elements in mitochondria: structure, mobility, and evolutionary origin

Programmed translational bypassing enables ribosomes to 'ignore' a precise mRNA interval of several dozen nucleotides. Well-characterized bypassed sequences include hop and byp elements, present in bacteriophage T4 and mitochondria of the yeast Magnusiomyces capitatus, respectively. The bypassing mechanism of byps is probably similar to that of hop, yet the former appears more effective and less constrained as to sequence context. Furthermore, both elements are mobile but hop moves as part of a cassette including a homing endonuclease, whereas byps seem to spread like miniature DNA transposable elements known as GC clusters. Here, we argue that hop and byps arose independently by convergent evolution, and that byps evolved in magnusiomycete mitochondria due to (as yet unknown) alterations of the mitochondrial translation machinery.

High-efficiency translational bypassing of non-coding nucleotides specified by mRNA structure and nascent peptide

The gene product 60 (gp60) of bacteriophage T4 is synthesized as a single polypeptide chain from a discontinuous reading frame as a result of bypassing of a non-coding mRNA region of 50 nucleotides by the ribosome. To identify the minimum set of signals required for bypassing, we recapitulated efficient translational bypassing in an in vitro reconstituted translation system from Escherichia coli. We find that the signals, which promote efficient and accurate bypassing, are specified by the gene 60 mRNA sequence. Systematic analysis of the mRNA suggests unexpected contributions of sequences upstream and downstream of the non-coding gap region as well as of the nascent peptide. During bypassing, ribosomes glide forward on the mRNA track in a processive way. Gliding may have a role not only for gp60 synthesis, but also during regular mRNA translation for reading frame selection during initiation or tRNA translocation during elongation.

Predicting the minimal translation apparatus: lessons from the reductive evolution of mollicutes

Mollicutes is a class of parasitic bacteria that have evolved from a common Firmicutes ancestor mostly by massive genome reduction. With genomes under 1 Mbp in size, most Mollicutes species retain the capacity to replicate and grow autonomously. The major goal of this work was to identify the minimal set of proteins that can sustain ribosome biogenesis and translation of the genetic code in these bacteria. Using the experimentally validated genes from the model bacteria Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis as input, genes encoding proteins of the core translation machinery were predicted in 39 distinct Mollicutes species, 33 of which are culturable. The set of 260 input genes encodes proteins involved in ribosome biogenesis, tRNA maturation and aminoacylation, as well as proteins cofactors required for mRNA translation and RNA decay. A core set of 104 of these proteins is found in all species analyzed. Genes encoding proteins involved in post-translational modifications of ribosomal proteins and translation cofactors, post-transcriptional modifications of t+rRNA, in ribosome assembly and RNA degradation are the most frequently lost. As expected, genes coding for aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, ribosomal proteins and initiation, elongation and termination factors are the most persistent (i.e. conserved in a majority of genomes). Enzymes introducing nucleotides modifications in the anticodon loop of tRNA, in helix 44 of 16S rRNA and in helices 69 and 80 of 23S rRNA, all essential for decoding and facilitating peptidyl transfer, are maintained in all species. Reconstruction of genome evolution in Mollicutes revealed that, beside many gene losses, occasional gains by horizontal gene transfer also occurred. This analysis not only showed that slightly different solutions for preserving a functional, albeit minimal, protein synthetizing machinery have emerged in these successive rounds of reductive evolution but also has broad implications in guiding the reconstruction of a minimal cell by synthetic biology approaches.

Streptococcus pyogenes c-di-AMP phosphodiesterase, GdpP, influences SpeB processing and virulence

Small cyclic nucleotide derivatives are employed as second messengers by both prokaryotes and eukaryotes to regulate diverse cellular processes responding to various signals. In bacteria, c-di-AMP has been discovered most recently, and some Gram-positive pathogens including S. pyogenes use this cyclic nucleotide derivative as a second messenger instead of c-di-GMP, a well-studied important bacterial second messenger. GdpP, c-di-AMP phosphodiesterase, is responsible for degrading c-di-AMP inside cells, and the cellular role of GdpP in S. pyogenes has not been examined yet. To test the cellular role of GdpP, we created a strain with a nonpolar inframe deletion of the gdpP gene, and examined the properties of the strain including virulence. From this study, we demonstrated that GdpP influences the biogenesis of SpeB, the major secreted cysteine protease, at a post-translational level, susceptibility to the beta lactam antibiotic ampicillin, and is necessary for full virulence in a murine subcutaneous infection model.

Crippling the essential GTPase Der causes dependence on ribosomal protein L9

Ribosomal protein L9 is a component of all eubacterial ribosomes, yet deletion strains display only subtle growth defects. Although L9 has been implicated in helping ribosomes maintain translation reading frame and in regulating translation bypass, no portion of the ribosome-bound protein seems capable of contacting either the peptidyltransferase center or the decoding center, so it is a mystery how L9 can influence these important processes. To reveal the physiological roles of L9 that have maintained it in evolution, we identified mutants of Escherichia coli that depend on L9 for fitness. In this report, we describe a class of L9-dependent mutants in the ribosome biogenesis GTPase Der (EngA/YphC). Purified mutant proteins were severely compromised in their GTPase activities, despite the fact that the mutations are not present in GTP hydrolysis sites. Moreover, although L9 and YihI complemented the slow-growth der phenotypes, neither factor could rescue the GTPase activities in vitro. Complementation studies revealed that the N-terminal domain of L9 is necessary and sufficient to improve the fitness of these Der mutants, suggesting that this domain may help stabilize compromised ribosomes that accumulate when Der is defective. Finally, we employed a targeted degradation system to rapidly deplete L9 from a highly compromised der mutant strain and show that the L9-dependent phenotype coincides with a cell division defect.

Identification of the nature of reading frame transitions observed in prokaryotic genomes

Our goal was to identify evolutionary conserved frame transitions in protein coding regions and to uncover an underlying functional role of these structural aberrations. We used the ab initio frameshift prediction program, GeneTack, to detect reading frame transitions in 206 991 genes (fs-genes) from 1106 complete prokaryotic genomes. We grouped 102 731 fs-genes into 19 430 clusters based on sequence similarity between protein products (fs-proteins) as well as conservation of predicted position of the frameshift and its direction. We identified 4010 pseudogene clusters and 146 clusters of fs-genes apparently using recoding (local deviation from using standard genetic code) due to possessing specific sequence motifs near frameshift positions. Particularly interesting was finding of a novel type of organization of the dnaX gene, where recoding is required for synthesis of the longer subunit, τ. We selected 20 clusters of predicted recoding candidates and designed a series of genetic constructs with a reporter gene or affinity tag whose expression would require a frameshift event. Expression of the constructs in Escherichia coli demonstrated enrichment of the set of candidates with sequences that trigger genuine programmed ribosomal frameshifting; we have experimentally confirmed four new families of programmed frameshifts.

The phenotype of many independently isolated +1 frameshift suppressor mutants supports a pivotal role of the P-site in reading frame maintenance

The main features of translation are similar in all organisms on this planet and one important feature of it is the way the ribosome maintain the reading frame. We have earlier characterized several bacterial mutants defective in tRNA maturation and found that some of them correct a +1 frameshift mutation; i.e. such mutants possess an error in reading frame maintenance. Based on the analysis of the frameshifting phenotype of such mutants we proposed a pivotal role of the ribosomal grip of the peptidyl-tRNA to maintain the correct reading frame. To test the model in an unbiased way we first isolated many (467) independent mutants able to correct a +1 frameshift mutation and thereafter tested whether or not their frameshifting phenotypes were consistent with the model. These 467+1 frameshift suppressor mutants had alterations in 16 different loci of which 15 induced a defective tRNA by hypo- or hypermodifications or altering its primary sequence. All these alterations of tRNAs induce a frameshift error in the P-site to correct a +1 frameshift mutation consistent with the proposed model. Modifications next to and 3' of the anticodon (position 37), like 1-methylguanosine, are important for proper reading frame maintenance due to their interactions with components of the ribosomal P-site. Interestingly, two mutants had a defect in a locus (rpsI), which encodes ribosomal protein S9. The C-terminal of this protein contacts position 32-34 of the peptidyl-tRNA and is thus part of the P-site environment. The two rpsI mutants had a C-terminal truncated ribosomal protein S9 that destroys its interaction with the peptidyl-tRNA resulting in +1 shift in the reading frame. The isolation and characterization of the S9 mutants gave strong support of our model that the ribosomal grip of the peptidyl-tRNA is pivotal for the reading frame maintenance.

Ribosome engineering to promote new crystal forms

Crystallographic studies of the ribosome have provided molecular details of protein synthesis. However, the crystallization of functional complexes of ribosomes with GTPase translation factors proved to be elusive for a decade after the first ribosome structures were determined. Analysis of the packing in different 70S ribosome crystal forms revealed that regardless of the species or space group, a contact between ribosomal protein L9 from the large subunit and 16S rRNA in the shoulder of a neighbouring small subunit in the crystal lattice competes with the binding of GTPase elongation factors to this region of 16S rRNA. To prevent the formation of this preferred crystal contact, a mutant strain of Thermus thermophilus, HB8-MRCMSAW1, in which the ribosomal protein L9 gene has been truncated was constructed by homologous recombination. Mutant 70S ribosomes were used to crystallize and solve the structure of the ribosome with EF-G, GDP and fusidic acid in a previously unobserved crystal form. Subsequent work has shown the usefulness of this strain for crystallization of the ribosome with other GTPase factors.

Regulation of mammalian mitochondrial translation by post-translational modifications

Mitochondria are responsible for the production of over 90% of the energy in eukaryotes through oxidative phosphorylation performed by electron transfer and ATP synthase complexes. Mitochondrial translation machinery is responsible for the synthesis of 13 essential proteins of these complexes encoded by the mitochondrial genome. Emerging data suggest that acetyl-CoA, NAD(+), and ATP are involved in regulation of this machinery through post-translational modifications of its protein components. Recent high-throughput proteomics analyses and mapping studies have provided further evidence for phosphorylation and acetylation of ribosomal proteins and translation factors. Here, we will review our current knowledge related to these modifications and their possible role(s) in the regulation of mitochondrial protein synthesis using the homology between mitochondrial and bacterial translation machineries. However, we have yet to determine the effects of phosphorylation and acetylation of translation components in mammalian mitochondrial biogenesis. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Mitochondrial Gene Expression.

A homing endonuclease and the 50-nt ribosomal bypass sequence of phage T4 constitute a mobile DNA cassette

Since its initial description more than two decades ago, the ribosome bypass (or "hop") sequence of phage T4 stands out as a uniquely extreme example of programmed translational frameshifting. The gene for a DNA topoisomerase subunit of T4 has been split by a 1-kb insertion into two genes that retain topoisomerase function. A second 50-nt insertion, beginning with an in-phase stop codon, is inserted near the start of the newly created downstream gene 60. Instead of terminating at this stop codon, approximately half of the ribosomes skip 50 nucleotides and continue translation in a new reading frame. However, no functions, regulatory or otherwise, have been imputed for the truncated peptide that results from termination at codon 46 or for the bypass sequence itself. Moreover, how this unusual mRNA organization arose and why it is maintained have never been explained. We show here that a homing endonuclease (MobA) is encoded in the insertion that created gene 60, and the mobA gene together with the bypass sequence constitute a mobile DNA cassette. The bypass sequence provides protection against self-cleavage by the nuclease, whereas the nuclease promotes horizontal spread of the entire cassette to related bacteriophages. Group I introns frequently provide protection against self-cleavage by associated homing endonucleases. We present a scenario by which the bypass sequence, which is otherwise a unique genetic element, might have been derived from a degenerate group I intron.

Alternative fates of paused ribosomes during translation termination

The bacterial tmRNA·SmpB system facilitates recycling of stalled translational complexes in a process termed "ribosome rescue." During ribosome rescue, the nascent chain is tagged with the tmRNA-encoded ssrA peptide, which targets the tagged polypeptide for degradation. Translational pausing also induces a variety of recoding events such as frameshifts, ribosome hops, and stop codon readthrough. To examine the interplay between recoding and ribosome rescue, we determined the various fates of ribosomes that pause during translation termination. We expressed a model protein containing the C-terminal Asp-Pro nascent peptide motif (which interferes with translation termination) and quantified the protein chains produced by recoding and ssrA-peptide tagging. The nature and extent of translational recoding depended upon the codon for the C-terminal Pro residue, with CCU and CCC promoting efficient +1 frameshifting. In contrast, ssrA-peptide tagging was unaffected by C-terminal Pro coding. Moreover, +1 frameshifting was not suppressed by tmRNA·SmpB activity, suggesting that recoding and ribosome rescue are not competing events. However, cells lacking ribosomal protein L9 (ΔL9) exhibited a significant increase in recoding and a concomitant decrease in ssrA-peptide tagging. Pulse-chase analysis revealed that pre-termination ribosomes turn over more rapidly in ΔL9 cells, suggesting that increased recoding alleviates the translational arrest. Together, these results indicate that tmRNA·SmpB does not suppress transient ribosome pauses, but responds to prolonged translational arrest.

Structural analysis of a prokaryotic ribosome using a novel amidinating cross-linker and mass spectrometry

The structure of the Escherichia coli ribosome, a 2.5 MDa ribonucleoprotein complex containing more than 50 proteins, was probed using the novel amidinating cross-linker diethyl suberthioimidate (DEST) and mass spectrometry. Peptide cross-links derived from this complex structure were identified at high confidence (FDR 0.8%) from precursor mass measurements and collision-induced dissociation (CID) fragmentation spectra. The acquired cross-linking data were found to be in excellent agreement with the crystal structure of the E. coli ribosome. DEST cross-links are particularly amenable to strong cation exchange (SCX) chromatography, facilitating a large-scale analysis. SCX enrichment and fractionation were shown to increase the number of cross-link spectra matches in our analysis 10-fold. Evidence is presented that these techniques can be used to study complex interactomes.

Two groups of phenylalanine biosynthetic operon leader peptides genes: a high level of apparently incidental frameshifting in decoding Escherichia coli pheL

The bacterial pheL gene encodes the leader peptide for the phenylalanine biosynthetic operon. Translation of pheL mRNA controls transcription attenuation and, consequently, expression of the downstream pheA gene. Fifty-three unique pheL genes have been identified in sequenced genomes of the gamma subdivision. There are two groups of pheL genes, both of which are short and contain a run(s) of phenylalanine codons at an internal position. One group is somewhat diverse and features different termination and 5'-flanking codons. The other group, mostly restricted to Enterobacteria and including Escherichia coli pheL, has a conserved nucleotide sequence that ends with UUC_CCC_UGA. When these three codons in E. coli pheL mRNA are in the ribosomal E-, P- and A-sites, there is an unusually high level, 15%, of +1 ribosomal frameshifting due to features of the nascent peptide sequence that include the penultimate phenylalanine. This level increases to 60% with a natural, heterologous, nascent peptide stimulator. Nevertheless, studies with different tRNA(Pro) mutants in Salmonella enterica suggest that frameshifting at the end of pheL does not influence expression of the downstream pheA. This finding of incidental, rather than utilized, frameshifting is cautionary for other studies of programmed frameshifting.

Post-transcriptional control by bacteriophage T4: mRNA decay and inhibition of translation initiation

Over 50 years of biological research with bacteriophage T4 includes notable discoveries in post-transcriptional control, including the genetic code, mRNA, and tRNA; the very foundations of molecular biology. In this review we compile the past 10 - 15 year literature on RNA-protein interactions with T4 and some of its related phages, with particular focus on advances in mRNA decay and processing, and on translational repression. Binding of T4 proteins RegB, RegA, gp32 and gp43 to their cognate target RNAs has been characterized. For several of these, further study is needed for an atomic-level perspective, where resolved structures of RNA-protein complexes are awaiting investigation. Other features of post-transcriptional control are also summarized. These include: RNA structure at translation initiation regions that either inhibit or promote translation initiation; programmed translational bypassing, where T4 orchestrates ribosome bypass of a 50 nucleotide mRNA sequence; phage exclusion systems that involve T4-mediated activation of a latent endoribonuclease (PrrC) and cofactor-assisted activation of EF-Tu proteolysis (Gol-Lit); and potentially important findings on ADP-ribosylation (by Alt and Mod enzymes) of ribosome-associated proteins that might broadly impact protein synthesis in the infected cell. Many of these problems can continue to be addressed with T4, whereas the growing database of T4-related phage genome sequences provides new resources and potentially new phage-host systems to extend the work into a broader biological, evolutionary context.

A gripping tale of ribosomal frameshifting: extragenic suppressors of frameshift mutations spotlight P-site realignment

Mutants of translation components which compensate for both -1 and +1 frameshift mutations showed the first evidence for framing malleability. Those compensatory mutants isolated in bacteria and yeast with altered tRNA or protein factors are reviewed here and are considered to primarily cause altered P-site realignment and not altered translocation. Though the first sequenced tRNA mutant which suppressed a +1 frameshift mutation had an extra base in its anticodon loop and led to a textbook "yardstick" model in which the number of anticodon bases determines codon size, this model has long been discounted, although not by all. Accordingly, the reviewed data suggest that reading frame maintenance and translocation are two distinct features of the ribosome. None of the -1 tRNA suppressors have anticodon loops with fewer than the standard seven nucleotides. Many of the tRNA mutants potentially affect tRNA bending and/or stability and can be used for functional assays, and one has the conserved C74 of the 3' CCA substituted. The effect of tRNA modification deficiencies on framing has been particularly informative. The properties of some mutants suggest the use of alternative tRNA anticodon loop stack conformations by individual tRNAs in one translation cycle. The mutant proteins range from defective release factors with delayed decoding of A-site stop codons facilitating P-site frameshifting to altered EF-Tu/EF1alpha to mutant ribosomal large- and small-subunit proteins L9 and S9. Their study is revealing how mRNA slippage is restrained except where it is programmed to occur and be utilized.

The ribosomal grip of the peptidyl-tRNA is critical for reading frame maintenance

If a ribosome shifts to an alternative reading frame during translation, the information in the message is usually lost. We have selected mutants of Salmonella typhimurium with alterations in tRNA(cmo5UGG)(Pro) that cause increased frameshifting when present in the ribosomal P-site. In 108 such mutants, two parts of the tRNA molecule are altered: the anticodon stem and the D-arm, including its tertiary interactions with the variable arm. Some of these alterations in tRNA(cmo5UGG)(Pro) are in close proximity to ribosomal components in the P-site. The crystal structure of the 30S subunit suggests that the C-terminal end of ribosomal protein S9 contacts nucleotides 32-34 of peptidyl-tRNA. We have isolated mutants with defects in the C-terminus of S9 that induce +1 frameshifting. Combinations of changes in tRNA(cmo5UGG)(Pro) and S9 suggest that an interaction occurs between position 32 of the peptidyl-tRNA and the C-terminal end of S9. Together, our results suggest that the cause of frameshifting is an aberrant interaction between the peptidyl-tRNA and the P-site environment. We suggest that the "ribosomal grip" of the peptidyl-tRNA is pivotal for maintaining the reading frame.

Ribosomal Proteins in the Spotlight

The assignment of specific ribosomal functions to individual ribosomal proteins is difficult due to the enormous cooperativity of the ribosome; however, important roles for distinct ribosomal proteins are becoming evident. Although rRNA has a major role in certain aspects of ribosomal function, such as decoding and peptidyl-transferase activity, ribosomal proteins are nevertheless essential for the assembly and optimal functioning of the ribosome. This is particularly true in the context of interactions at the entrance pore for mRNA, for the translation-factor binding site and at the tunnel exit, where both chaperones and complexes associated with protein transport through membranes bind.

Translational bypassing without peptidyl-tRNA anticodon scanning of coding gap mRNA

Half the ribosomes translating the mRNA for phage T4 gene 60 topoisomerase subunit bypass a 50 nucleotide coding gap between codons 46 and 47. The pairing of codon 46 with its cognate peptidyl-tRNA anticodon dissociates, and following mRNA slippage, peptidyl-tRNA re-pairs to mRNA at a matched triplet 5' adjacent to codon 47, where translation resumes. Here, in studies with gene 60 cassettes, it is shown that the peptidyl-tRNA anticodon does not scan the intervening sequence for potential complementarity. However, certain coding gap mutants allow peptidyl-tRNA to scan sequences in the bypassed segment. A model is proposed in which the coding gap mRNA enters the ribosomal A-site and forms a structure that precludes peptidyl-tRNA scanning of its sequence. Dissipation of this RNA structure, together with the contribution of 16S rRNA anti-Shine-Dalgarno sequence pairing with GAG, facilitates peptidyl-tRNA re-pairing to mRNA.

Halting a cellular production line: responses to ribosomal pausing during translation

Cellular protein synthesis is a complex polymerization process carried out by multiple ribosomes translating individual mRNAs. The process must be responsive to rapidly changing conditions in the cell that could cause ribosomal pausing and queuing. In some circumstances, pausing of a bacterial ribosome can trigger translational abandonment via the process of trans-translation, mediated by tmRNA (transfer-messenger RNA) and endonucleases. Together, these factors release the ribosome from the mRNA and target the incomplete polypeptide for destruction. In eukaryotes, ribosomal pausing can initiate an analogous process carried out by the Dom34p and Hbs1p proteins, which trigger endonucleolytic attack of the mRNA, a process termed mRNA no-go decay. However, ribosomal pausing can also be employed for regulatory purposes, and controlled translational delays are used to help co-translational folding of the nascent polypeptide on the ribosome, as well as a tactic to delay translation of a protein while its encoding mRNA is being localized within the cell. However, other responses to pausing trigger ribosomal frameshift events. Recent discoveries are thus revealing a wide variety of mechanisms used to respond to translational pausing and thus regulate the flow of ribosomal traffic on the mRNA population.

Alterations in the two globular domains or in the connecting alpha-helix of bacterial ribosomal protein L9 induces +1 frameshifts

The ribosomal 50S subunit protein L9, encoded by the gene rplI, is an elongated protein with an alpha-helix connecting the N- and C-terminal globular domains. We isolated rplI mutants that suppress the +1 frameshift mutation hisC3072 in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. These mutants have amino acid substitutions in the N-terminal domain (G24D) or in the C-terminal domain (I94S, A102D, G126V, and F132S) of L9. In addition, different one-base deletions in rplI altered either the final portion of the C terminus or removed the C-terminal domain with or without the connecting alpha-helix. An alanine-to-proline substitution at position 59 (A59P), which breaks the alpha-helix between the globular domains, induced +1 frameshifting, suggesting that the geometrical relationship between the N and C domains is important to maintain the reading frame. Except for the alterations G126V in the C terminus and A59P in the connecting alpha-helix, our results confirm earlier results obtained by using the phage T4 gene 60-based system to monitor bypassing. The way rplI mutations suppress various frameshift mutations suggests that bypassing of many codons from several takeoff and landing sites occurred instead of a specific frameshift forward at overlapping codons.

Idiosyncratic tuning of tRNAs to achieve uniform ribosome binding

The binding of seven tRNA anticodons to their complementary codons on Escherichia coli ribosomes was substantially impaired, as compared with the binding of their natural tRNAs, when they were transplanted into tRNA(2)(Ala). An analysis of chimeras composed of tRNA(2)(Ala) and various amounts of either tRNA(3)(Gly) or tRNA(2)(Arg) indicates that the presence of the parental 32-38 nucleotide pair is sufficient to restore ribosome binding of the transplanted anticodons. Furthermore, mutagenesis of tRNA(2)(Ala) showed that its highly conserved A32-U38 pair serves to weaken ribosome affinity. We propose that this negative binding determinant is used to offset the very tight codon-anticodon interaction of tRNA(2)(Ala). This suggests that each tRNA sequence has coevolved with its anticodon to tune ribosome affinity to a value that is the same for all tRNAs.

Expression levels influence ribosomal frameshifting at the tandem rare arginine codons AGG_AGG and AGA_AGA in Escherichia coli

The rare codons AGG and AGA comprise 2% and 4%, respectively, of the arginine codons of Escherichia coli K-12, and their cognate tRNAs are sparse. At tandem occurrences of either rare codon, the paucity of cognate aminoacyl tRNAs for the second codon of the pair facilitates peptidyl-tRNA shifting to the +1 frame. However, AGG_AGG and AGA_AGA are not underrepresented and occur 4 and 42 times, respectively, in E. coli genes. Searches for corresponding occurrences in other bacteria provide no strong support for the functional utilization of frameshifting at these sequences. All sequences tested in their native context showed 1.5 to 11% frameshifting when expressed from multicopy plasmids. A cassette with one of these sequences singly integrated into the chromosome in stringent cells gave 0.9% frameshifting in contrast to two- to four-times-higher values obtained from multicopy plasmids in stringent cells and eight-times-higher values in relaxed cells. Thus, +1 frameshifting efficiency at AGG_AGG and AGA_AGA is influenced by the mRNA expression level. These tandem rare codons do not occur in highly expressed mRNAs.

Global gene expression responses to cadmium toxicity in Escherichia coli

Genome-wide analysis of temporal gene expression profiles in Escherichia coli following exposure to cadmium revealed a shift to anaerobic metabolism and induction of several stress response systems. Disruption in the transcription of genes encoding ribosomal proteins and zinc-binding proteins may partially explain the molecular mechanisms of cadmium toxicity.

A "gain of function" mutation in a protein mediates production of novel modified nucleosides

The mutation sufY204 mediates suppression of a +1 frameshift mutation in the histidine operon of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium and synthesis of two novel modified nucleosides in tRNA. The sufY204 mutation, which results in an amino-acid substitution in a protein, is, surprisingly, dominant over its wild-type allele and thus it is a "gain of function" mutation. One of the new nucleosides is 5-methylaminomethyl-2-thiouridine (mnm(5)s(2)U34) modified by addition of a C(10)H(17) side chain of unknown structure. Increased amounts of both nucleosides in tRNA are correlated to gene dosage of the sufY204 allele, to an increased efficiency of frameshift suppression, and to a decreased amount of the wobble nucleoside mnm(5)s(2)U34 in tRNA. Purified tRNA(Gln)(cmnm(5)s(2)UUG) in the mutant strain contains a modified nucleoside similar to the novel nucleosides and the level of aminoacylation of tRNA(Gln)(cmnm(5)s(2)UUG) was reduced to 26% compared to that found in the wild type (86%). The results are discussed in relation to the mechanism of reading frame maintenance and the evolution of modified nucleosides in tRNA.

A reduced level of charged tRNAArgmnm5UCU triggers the wild-type peptidyl-tRNA to frameshift

Frameshift mutations can be suppressed by a variety of differently acting external suppressors. The +1 frameshift mutation hisC3072, which has an extra G in a run of Gs, is corrected by the external suppressor mutation sufF44. We have shown that sufF44 and five additional allelic suppressor mutations are located in the gene argU coding for the minor tRNAArgmnm5UCU and alter the secondary and/or tertiary structure of this tRNA. The C61U, G53A, and C32U mutations influence the stability, whereas the C56U, C61U, G53A, and G39A mutations decrease the arginylation of tRNAArgmnm5UCU. The T-10C mutant has a base substitution in the -10 consensus sequence of the argU promoter that reduces threefold the synthesis of tRNAArgmnm5UCU . The lower amount of tRNAArgmnm5UCU or impaired arginylation, either independently or in conjunction, results in inefficient reading of the cognate AGA codon that, in turn, induces frameshifts. According to the sequence of the peptide produced from the suppressed -GGG-GAA-AGA- frameshift site, the frameshifting tRNA in the argU mutants is tRNAGlumnm5s2UUC, which decodes the GAA codon located upstream of the AGA arginine codon, and not the mutated tRNAArgmnm5UCU. We propose that an inefficient decoding of the AGA codon by a defective tRNAArgmnm5UCU stalls the ribosome at the A-site codon allowing the wild-type form of peptidyl-tRNAGlumnm5s2UUC to slip forward 1 nucleotide and thereby re-establish the ribosome in the 0-frame. Similar frame-shifting events could be the main cause of various phenotypes associated with environmental or genetically induced changes in the levels of aminoacylated tRNA.

Programmed ribosomal frameshifting in decoding the SARS-CoV genome

Programmed ribosomal frameshifting is an essential mechanism used for the expression of orf1b in coronaviruses. Comparative analysis of the frameshift region reveals a universal shift site U_UUA_AAC, followed by a predicted downstream RNA structure in the form of either a pseudoknot or kissing stem loops. Frameshifting in SARS-CoV has been characterized in cultured mammalian cells using a dual luciferase reporter system and mass spectrometry. Mutagenic analysis of the SARS-CoV shift site and mass spectrometry of an affinity tagged frameshift product confirmed tandem tRNA slippage on the sequence U_UUA_AAC. Analysis of the downstream pseudoknot stimulator of frameshifting in SARS-CoV shows that a proposed RNA secondary structure in loop II and two unpaired nucleotides at the stem I–stem II junction in SARS-CoV are important for frameshift stimulation. These results demonstrate key sequences required for efficient frameshifting, and the utility of mass spectrometry to study ribosomal frameshifting.

P-site pairing subtleties revealed by the effects of different tRNAs on programmed translational bypassing where anticodon re-pairing to mRNA is separated from dissociation

Programmed ribosomal bypassing occurs in decoding phage T4 gene 60 mRNA. Half the ribosomes bypass a 50 nucleotide gap between codons 46 and 47. Peptidyl-tRNA dissociates from the "take-off" GGA, codon 46, and re-pairs to mRNA at a matched GGA "landing site" codon directly 5' of codon 47 where translation resumes. The system described here allows the contribution of peptidyl-tRNA re-pairing to be measured independently of dissociation. The matched GGA codons have been replaced by 62 other matched codons, giving a wide range of bypassing efficiencies. Codons with G or C in either or both of the first two codon positions yielded high levels of bypassing. The results are compared with those from a complementary study of non-programmed bypassing, where the combined effects of peptidyl-tRNA dissociation and reassociation were measured. The wild-type, GGA, matched codons are the most efficient in their gene 60 context in contrast to the relatively low value in the non-programmed bypassing study.

tRNA slippage at the tmRNA resume codon

The bacterial ribosome does not initiate translation on the mRNA portion of tmRNA; instead translation that had begun on a separate mRNA molecule resumes at a particular triplet on tmRNA (the resume codon). For at least two tRNAs that could pair with both the resume and -2 triplets on mutant tmRNAs, UAA (stop) as the second codon induced high-frequency -2 slippage on the resume codon in the P site. The frameshift product was not detected when the -2 base was altered. Deficiency for ribosomal L9 protein, which affects other cases of frameshifting, had no significant effect. A special feature of this frameshifting is its dependence on a particular context, that of the tmRNA resume codon; it failed on the same sequence in a regular mRNA, and, more strikingly, at the second tmRNA codon. This focuses attention on the peculiar features expected of the slippage-prone state, such as unusual E-site filling, that might make the P-site resume codon:anticodon interaction especially unstable.

KEYWORDS

tmRNA; ribosome; frameshift; E site; translation

-1 frameshifting at a CGA AAG hexanucleotide site is required for transposition of insertion sequence IS1222

The discovery of programmed -1 frameshifting at the hexanucleotide shift site CGA_AAG, in addition to the classical X_XXY_YYZ heptanucleotide shift sequences, prompted a search for instances among eubacterial insertion sequence elements. IS1222 has a CGA_AAG shift site. A genetic analysis revealed that frameshifting at this site is required for transposition.