Introduction: The Present Status of Xenotransplantation Research

Engineering organs, hopes and hybridity: considerations on the social potentialities of xenotransplantation

The development of replacing human organs with those from genetically modified pigs holds immense potential for alleviating the shortage of organs necessary for patients in need of transplants. This medical advancement is also accompanied by significant social changes, including the emergence of a bioeconomy, new modes of biotechnology governance, altered human-animal relations and increased public engagement. Some aspects, such as the impact on the transplant allocation system, effects on clinical practice and healthcare provision, global trajectories and most importantly the consequences for patients and their families remain unpredictable. Given that xenotransplantation occurs within a societal context and its success or failure will not be confined to technical feasibility alone, it is essential to engage a social sciences perspective to highlight the social implications and emphasise the importance of social research in accompanying future developments.

Xenotransplantation in the Age of Genome Editing: Results From the Expert Report for the Federal Ethics Committee on Nonhuman Biotechnology With a Special Focus on Animal Ethics

BACKGROUND

The Federal Ethics Committee on Non-Human Biotechnology (ECNH) of Switzerland is an independent expert committee appointed by the Federal Council and mandated to advise the federal authorities from an ethical perspective in the field of nonhuman biotechnology and gene technology. Due to recent developments in the field of xenotransplantation after the introduction of genome editing technologies, the ECNH has commissioned an expert report on the ethical questions of xenotransplantation with a focus on animal ethics. The subject of the inquiry is, in particular, if current developments in the field of xenotransplantation raise new questions regarding ethics in the nonhuman realm or if existing questions have to be re-examined and answered anew.

METHODS

An interdisciplinary approach was applied to answer this question. Based on the latest empirical results from medicine and biotechnology, xenotransplantation is analyzed and evaluated with reference to the dignity of the creature (Würde der Kreatur)-which is defined in the Swiss Federal Constitution-and the dignity of animals (Tierwürde) that is stipulated in the Swiss Animal Welfare Act and the Federal Act on Non-Human Gene Technology, as well as contemporary positions in the ethics of the human-animal relationship.

RESULTS

The report concludes that genome editing for xenotransplantation does not generate any qualitatively new ethical issues concerning ethics in the nonhuman realm. However, contemporary biotechnological developments must be taken as an opportunity to discuss existing ethical issues in an urgent and intensified manner, particularly regarding the significance of animals' moral standing. The lack of consideration of animal-related aspects and the neglect of current developments and the state of the art of animal ethics in the recent discussion about xenotransplantation is a scientific, ethical, and political issue because animals are most negatively affected by xenotransplantation. This is especially relevant because the contemporary state of the art in animal ethics tends to consider and protect animals more strongly than in the past.

From islet of Langerhans transplantation to the bioartificial pancreas

Type 1 diabetes is a disease resulting from autoimmune destruction of the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. When type 1 diabetes develops into severe secondary complications, in particular end-stage nephropathy, or life-threatening severe hypoglycemia, the best therapeutic approach is pancreas transplantation, or more recently transplantation of the pancreatic islets of Langerhans. Islet transplantation is a cell therapy procedure, that is minimally invasive and has a low morbidity, but does not display the same rate of functional success as the more invasive pancreas transplantation because of suboptimal engraftment and survival. Another issue is that pancreas or islet transplantation (collectively known as beta cell replacement therapy) is limited by the shortage of organ donors and by the need for lifelong immunosuppression to prevent immune rejection and recurrence of autoimmunity. A bioartificial pancreas is a construct made of functional, insulin-producing tissue, embedded in an anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory microenvironment and encapsulated in a perm-selective membrane allowing glucose sensing and insulin release, but isolating from attacks by cells of the immune system. A successful bioartificial pancreas would address the issues of engraftment, survival and rejection. Inclusion of unlimited sources of insulin-producing cells, such as xenogeneic porcine islets or stem cell-derived beta cells would further solve the problem of organ shortage. This article reviews the current status of clinical islet transplantation, the strategies aiming at developing a bioartificial pancreas, the clinical trials conducted in the field and the perspectives for further progress.

Recent progress and remaining hurdles toward clinical xenotransplantation

BACKGROUND

Xenotransplantation has made tremendous progress over the last decade.

METHODS

We discuss kidney and heart xenotransplantation, which are nearing initial clinical trials.

RESULTS

Life sustaining genetically modified kidney xenografts can now last for approximately 500 days and orthotopic heart xenografts for 200 days in non-human primates. Anti-swine specific antibody screening, preemptive desensitization protocols, complement inhibition and targeted immunosuppression are currently being adapted to xenotransplantation with the hope to achieve better control of antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) and improve xenograft longevity. These newest advances could probably facilitate future clinical trials, a significant step for the medical community, given that dialysis remains difficult for many patients and can have prohibitive costs. Performing a successful pig-to-human clinical kidney xenograft, that could last for more than a year after transplant, seems feasible but it still has significant potential hurdles to overcome. The risk/benefit balance is progressively reaching an acceptable equilibrium for future human recipients, e.g. those with a life expectancy inferior to two years. The ultimate question at this stage would be to determine if a "proof of concept" in humans is desirable, or whether further experimental/pre-clinical advances are still needed to demonstrate longer xenograft survival in non-human primates.

CONCLUSION

In this review, we discuss the most recent advances in kidney and heart xenotransplantation, with a focus on the prevention and treatment of AMR and on the recipient's selection, two aspects that will likely be the major points of discussion in the first pig organ xenotransplantation clinical trials.

The origin of porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVs)

Porcine endogenous retroviruses (PERVs) are integrated in the genome of all pigs, and they produce viral particles that are able to infect human cells and therefore pose a special risk for xenotransplantation. In contrast to other pig microorganisms that also pose a risk, such as porcine cytomegalovirus and hepatitis E virus, PERVs cannot be eliminated from pigs by vaccines, antiviral drugs, early weaning, or embryo transfer. Since PERVs are relevant for xenotransplantation, their biology and origin are of great interest. Recent studies have shown that PERVs are the result of a transspecies transmission of precursor retroviruses from different animals and further evolution in the pig genome. PERVs acquired different long terminal repeats (LTRs), and recombination took place. In parallel, it has been shown that the activity of the LTRs and recombination in the envelope are important for the transmissibility and pathogenesis of PERVs. Transspecies transmission of retroviruses is common, a well-known example being the transmission of precursor retroviruses from non-human primates to humans, resulting in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Here, recent findings concerning the origin of PERVs, their LTRs, and recombination events that occurred during evolution are reviewed and compared with other findings regarding transspecies transmission of retroviruses.

Kidney xenotransplantation: Recent progress in preclinical research

Kidney transplantation is the most effective treatment for end-stage renal disease, but is limited by the increasing shortage of deceased and living human donor kidneys. Xenotransplantation using pig organs provides the possibility to resolve the issue of organ supply shortage and is regarded as the next great medical revolution. In the past five years, there have been sequential advances toward the prolongation of life-supporting pig kidney xenograft survival in non-human primates, with the longest survival being 499 days. This progress is due to the growing availability of pigs with multi-layered genetic modifications to overcome the pathobiological barriers and the application of a costimulation blockade-based immunosuppressive regimen. These encouraging results bring the hope to initiate the clinical trials of pig kidney transplantation in the near future. In this review, we summarized the latest advances regarding pig kidney xenotransplantation in preclinical models to provide a basis for future investigation and potential clinical translation.

Pancreatic islet transplantation: toward definitive treatment for diabetes mellitus

Since the late 20th century, advances in pancreatic islet transplantation have targeted improved glycemic control and fewer hypoglycemic events in patients with type 1 diabetes, and some important milestones have been reached. Following the Edmonton group's success in achieving insulin independence in all transplanted patients with type 1 diabetes, clinical islet transplantation is now performed worldwide. β cell replacement therapy for type 1 diabetes was established based on the favorable outcomes of a phase 3, prospective, open-label, single-arm, clinical study conducted at 8 centers in North America, in which 42 of 48 patients who underwent islet transplantation from 2008 to 2011 achieved HbA1c < 7.0% (53 mmol/mol) at day 365, which was maintained at 2 years in 34 patients. In Japan, a phase 2 multicenter clinical trial of islet transplantation for type 1 diabetes patients is currently ongoing and will end soon, but the interim results have already led to positive changes, with allogeneic islet transplantation being covered by the national health insurance system since April 2020. Current efforts are being made to solve the problem of donor shortage by studying alternative donor sources, such as porcine islets and pancreatic progenitor cells derived from pluripotent stem cells. The results of clinical trials in this area are eagerly awaited. It is hoped that they will contribute to establishing alternative sources for insulin-producing β cells in the near future.

How the COVID-19 pandemic may impact public support for clinical xenotransplantation in the United States?

Many patients who would undergo organ transplantation cannot proceed due to the inability of human organ donation to satisfy medical needs. Xenotransplantation has the potential to offer unlimited availability of pig organs for transplantation, and pig-to-non-human primate models have demonstrated outcomes that may soon justify clinical trials. However, one of the unique ethical challenges faced by xenotransplantation is that the risk of introducing potential zoonotic disease into the community must be weighed along with the benefit to the patient. While most experts believe that zoonosis is manageable, apprehension over disease transmission from animal donors to human recipients remains a frequent concern of many who are undecided or opposed to clinical xenotransplantation. The COVID-19 pandemic represents a scenario (rapid worldwide spread of a highly contagious novel zoonotic disease with no natural defense in humans) that would seem to justify apprehension, especially in the United States, which has largely avoided previous pandemic outbreaks. However, there are many differences between zoonosis found in the wild or after xenotransplantation that favor the safety of the latter. Still, these differences, as well as the benefits of xenotransplantation, are not widely understood outside of the field. We must therefore ask what impact the COVID-19 pandemic will have on attitudes toward xenotransplantation.

Sensitive detection systems for infectious agents in xenotransplantation

Xenotransplantation of pig cells, tissues, or organs may be associated with transmission of porcine microorganisms, first of all of viruses, to the transplant recipient, potentially inducing a disease (zoonosis). I would like to define detection systems as the complex of sample generation, sample preparation, sample origin, time of sampling, and the necessary negative and positive controls along with the specific detection methods, either PCR-based, cell-based, or immunological methods. Some xenotransplantation-relevant viruses have already been defined; others are still unknown. The PCR-based methods include PCR and real-time PCR for DNA viruses, and RT-PCR and real-time RT-PCR for RNA viruses as well as for virus expression studies at the RNA level. Furthermore, droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) can be used for the determination of virus and provirus copies. To detect expression at the protein level, immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, and Western blot analyses can be used. To detect virus production and to detect infectious viruses, electron microscopy and infection assays can be used. Furthermore, immunological methods such as Western blot analysis or ELISA can be used to detect virus-specific antibodies. Detection of antiviral antibodies is a reliable and sensitive indirect detection method. For these immunological methods, purified viruses, recombinant viral proteins, or synthetic peptides are used as antigens and control sera and control antigens are needed. All these methods have been used in the past for the characterization of different pig breeds including genetically modified pigs generated for xenotransplantation and for the screening of recipients in preclinical and clinical xenotransplantations. Whereas in preclinical trials a few porcine viruses have been transmitted to the non-human primate recipients, in first clinical trials no such transmissions to humans were observed. Further improvement of the detection systems and their application in virus elimination programs will lead to clean donor animals and a safe xenotransplantation.