Distribution of some organochlorine compounds (PCB, CBz, and DDE) in beeswax and honey

Contaminant dynamics in honey bees and hive products of apiaries from environmentally contrasting Argentinean regions

Argentina is a leading honey producer and honey bees are also critical for pollination services and wild plants. At the same time, it is a major crop producer with significant use of insecticides, posing risks to bees. Therefore, the presence of the highly toxic insecticide chlorpyrifos, and forbidden contaminants (organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs)) was investigated in honey bee, beebread, wax and honey samples in apiaries from three contrasting regions of Argentina. Chlorpyrifos was detected in all samples with higher levels during period 1 (spring) in contrast to period 2 (fall), agreeing with its season-wise use in different crops, reaching 3.05 ng/g in honey bees. A subsequent first-tier pesticide hazard analysis revealed that it was relevant to honey bee health, mainly due to the high concentrations found in wax samples from two sites, reaching 132.4 ng/g. In addition, wax was found to be the most contaminated matrix with a prevalence of OCPs (∑OCPs 58.23-172.99 ng/g). Beebread samples showed the highest concentrations and diversity of pesticide residues during period 1 (higher temperatures). A predominance of the endosulfan group was registered in most samples, consistent with its intensive past use, especially in Central Patagonia before its prohibition. Among the industrial compounds, lighter PCB congeners dominated, suggesting the importance of atmospheric transport. The spatio-temporal distribution of pesticides shows a congruence with the environmental characteristics of the areas where the fields are located (i.e., land use, type of productive activities and climatic conditions). Sustained monitoring of different pollutants in beekeeping matrices is recommended to characterize chemical risks, assess the health status of honey bee hives and the pollution levels of different agroecosystems. This knowledge will set a precedent for South America and be helpful for actions focused on the conservation of pollination services, apiculture and ecosystems in Argentina.

Pesticide distribution and depletion kinetic determination in honey and beeswax: Model for pesticide occurrence and distribution in beehive products

Beehive products such as honey, beeswax and recently pollen have been regarded for many years as appropriate sentinels for environmental pesticide pollutions. However, despite yearly application of hundreds of approved pesticides in agricultural fields, only a minor fraction of these organic compounds were actually detected in honey and beeswax samples. This observation has led us to question the general suitability of beehive products as a sentinel for synthetic organic pesticides applied in the field. The aim of the present study was to experimentally determine the distribution (logarithmic ratio of beeswax to honey pesticide concentration, LogD) and depletion kinetics (half-life) of selected pesticides in honey and beeswax as a measure of the latter matrixes to serve as a pesticide sentinel. The obtained parameters were used to extrapolate to pesticide burden in honey and beeswax samples collected from German and Israeli apiaries. In addition, we aimed to establish a mathematical model, enabling us to predict distribution of selected pesticides between honey to beeswax, by utilizing simple substance descriptors, namely, octanol/water partitioning coefficient, molar weight and Henry coefficient. Based on the present results, it appears that pesticides with LogD values > 1 and half-life in beeswax > 1 day, were likely to accumulate and detected in beeswax samples, and less likely to be found in honey. On the other hand, pesticides with negative LogD values were highly likely to be found in honey and less so in beeswax samples. Finally, pesticides with LogD values between 0–1 were expected to be found in both matrixes. The developed model was successfully applied to predict LogD values, thereby identifying octanol/water partitioning and molar weight as the most prominent substance descriptors, which affect pesticide distribution between honey and beeswax.

Spontaneous honeybee behaviour is altered by persistent organic pollutants

The effect of environmental pollutants on honeybee behaviour has focused mainly on currently used pesticides. However, honeybees are also exposed to persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The aim of this laboratory based study was to determine if exposure to sublethal field-relevant concentrations of POPs altered the spontaneous behaviour of foraging-age worker honeybees. Honeybees (Apis mellifera) were orally exposed to either a sublethal concentration of the polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) mixture Aroclor 1254 (100 ng/ml), the organochlorine insecticide lindane (2.91 ng/ml) or vehicle (0.01% DMSO, 0.00015% ethanol in 1M sucrose) for 1-4 days. The frequency of single event behaviours and the time engaged in one of four behavioural states (walking, flying, upside down and stationary) were monitored for 15 min after 1, 2, 3 and 4 days exposure. Exposure to Aroclor 1254 but not lindane increased the frequency and time engaged in honeybee motor activity behaviours in comparison to vehicle. The Aroclor 1254-induced hyperactivity was evident after 1 day of exposure and persisted with repeated daily exposure. In contrast, 1 day of exposure to lindane elicited abdominal spasms and increased the frequency of grooming behaviours in comparison to vehicle exposure. After 4 days of exposure, abdominal spasms and increased grooming behaviours were also evident in honeybees exposed to Aroclor 1254. These data demonstrate that POPs can induce distinct behavioural patterns, indicating different toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic properties. The changes in spontaneous behaviour, particularly the PCB-induced chronic hyperactivity and the associated energy demands, may have implications for colony health.

Antibiotic, pesticide, and microbial contaminants of honey: human health hazards

Agricultural contamination with pesticides and antibiotics is a challenging problem that needs to be fully addressed. Bee products, such as honey, are widely consumed as food and medicine and their contamination may carry serious health hazards. Honey and other bee products are polluted by pesticides, heavy metals, bacteria and radioactive materials. Pesticide residues cause genetic mutations and cellular degradation and presence of antibiotics might increase resistant human or animal's pathogens. Many cases of infant botulisms have been attributed to contaminated honey. Honey may be very toxic when produced from certain plants. Ingestion of honey without knowing its source and safety might be problematic. Honey should be labeled to explore its origin, composition, and clear statement that it is free from contaminants. Honey that is not subjected for analysis and sterilization should not be used in infants, and should not be applied to wounds or used for medicinal purposes. This article reviews the extent and health impact of honey contamination and stresses on the introduction of a strict monitoring system and validation of acceptable minimal concentrations of pollutants or identifying maximum residue limits for bee products, in particular, honey.

Determination of some organochlorine pesticide residues in honeys from Konya, Turkey

In this study, 24 organochlorine pesticide residues in 109 different honey samples collected from stores and open markets in Konya, Turkey were analyzed by gas chromatography-electron capture detection. Aldrin, cis-chlordane, trans-chlordane, oxy-chlordane, 2,4(')-DDE, and 4,4(')-DDE were found in all honey samples. The mean value was 0.0540 microg g(-1) for oxy-chlordane. In the 55 samples of 109, levels of organochlorine pesticide residues of oxy-chlordane were determined as higher than those of Turkish Alimentarius Codex maximum residual limits (MRLs). Other organochlorine pesticide residues also exceeded MRLs except for cis-heptachlor epoxide and alpha-hexachlorocyclohexane. Since all of the honey samples are found contaminated and most of these samples exceeded MRLs, a control of organochlorine pesticide residues in honey is necessary for consumer health.

DDT residue in soil and water in and around abandoned DDT manufacturing factory

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) belongs to one of the most hazardous groups of chemicals called persistent organic pollutants. Many organochlorine pesticides including p,p(')-DDT are long lasting due to their non-degradability can travel to distant places and being fat soluble can accumulate in animals and human bodies. Due to the persistent nature of p,p(')-DDT, its adverse environmental and health impacts, the present study was undertaken to examine the residual p,p(')-DDT in and around abandoned p,p(')-DDT manufacturing factory in Amman Gharh, Nowshera, NWFP. Samples of soil, sediments and water were collected in and around the factory area, nearby p,p(')-DDT stores, main factory drain leading to river Kabul and nearby villages. Standard procedures were used for the collection, transportation and storage of samples for analyses. Extraction of each sample for p,p(')-DDT analyses was carried out in triplicates using Soxhelt extraction. p,p(')-DDT contents in the samples were analyzed by capillary GC with electron capture detector. Most of the samples collected up to half kilometer distance from the site of the DDT factory were found contaminated. Further the level of p,p(')-DDT decreased with increasing depth from top to bottom and with distance from the site. The results indicate that there is no immediate threat to underground water reservoirs.

Levels of polychlorinated biphenyls in Patella piperata from the coast of Fuerteventura (Canary Islands, Spain)

Concentration of 51 PCB congeners were determined in the visceral mass of the endemic limpet Patella piperata, sampled in four stations in the coast of Fuerteventura (Canary Islands, Spain) during 1991-1995, and evaluated in order to assess the origin of their contamination and the possibility of this limpet being used as a bioindicator organism for PCB contamination. PCB extracted from samples were fractionated on Florisil columns and analysed by capillary gas chromatography with flame ionisation detector. Principal Component, Factor and Cluster Analysis were used to study the patterns and relationships among PCBs.