Polycyclic aromatic compounds of environmental and occupational importance ? Their occurrence, toxicity and the development of high-purity certified reference materials: Part III

L-cysteine-capped core/shell/shell quantum dot-graphene oxide nanocomposite fluorescence probe for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon detection

Environmental pollutants, such as the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), become widely distributed in the environment after emission from a range of sources, and they have potential biological effects, including toxicity and carcinogenity. In this work, we have demonstrated the analytical potential of a covalently linked L-cysteine-capped CdSeTe/ZnSe/ZnS core/shell/shell quantum dot (QD)-graphene oxide (GO) nanocomposite fluorescence probe to detect PAH compounds in aqueous solution. Water-soluble L-cysteine-capped CdSeTe/ZnSe/ZnS QDs were synthesized for the first time and were covalently bonded to GO. The fluorescence of the QD-GO nanocomposite was enhanced relative to the unconjugated QDs. Various techniques including TEM, SEM, HRSEM, XRD, Raman, FT-IR, UV/vis and fluorescence spectrophotometry were employed to characterize both the QDs and the QD-GO nanocomposite. Four commonly found priority PAH analytes namely; phenanthrene (Phe), anthracene (Ant), pyrene (Py) and naphthalene (Naph), were tested and it was found that each of the PAH analytes enhanced the fluorescence of the QD-GO probe. Phe was selected for further studies as the PL enhancement was significantly greater for this PAH. A limit of detection (LOD) of 0.19 µg/L was obtained for Phe under optimum conditions, whilst the LOD of Ant, Py and Naph were estimated to be ~0.26 µg/L. The fluorescence detection mechanism is proposed.

The use of silver solid amalgam electrodes for voltammetric and amperometric determination of nitrated polyaromatic compounds used as markers of incomplete combustion

Genotoxic nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (NPAHs) are formed during incomplete combustion processes by reaction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) with atmospheric nitrogen oxides. 1-Nitropyrene, 2-nitrofluorene, and 3-nitrofluoranthene as the dominating substances are used as markers of NPAHs formation by these processes. In the presented study, voltammetric properties and quantification of these compounds and of 5-nitroquinoline (as a representative of environmentally important genotoxic heterocyclic compounds) have been investigated using a mercury meniscus modified silver solid amalgam electrode (m-AgSAE), which represent a nontoxic alternative to traditional mercury electrodes. Linear calibration curves over three orders of magnitude and limits of determination mostly in the 10(-7) mol L(-1) concentration range were obtained using direct current and differential pulse voltammetry. Further, satisfactory HPLC separation of studied analytes in fifteen minutes was achieved using 0.01 mol L(-1) phosphate buffer, pH 7.0 : methanol (15 : 85, v/v) mobile phase, and C(18) reversed stationary phase. Limits of detection of around 1 · 10(-5) mol L(-1) were achieved using amperometric detection at m-AgSAE in wall-jet arrangement for all studied analytes. Practical applicability of this technique was demonstrated on the determination of 1-nitropyrene, 2-nitrofluorene, 3-nitrofluoranthene, and 5-nitroquinoline in drinking water after their preliminary separation and preconcentration using solid phase extraction with the limits of detection around 1 · 10(-6) mol L(-1).

Development of analytical methods for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in airborne particulates: a review

In the present work, the different sample collection, pretreatment and analytical methods for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in airborne particulates is systematacially reviewed, and the applications of these pretreatment and analytical methods for PAHs are compared in detail. Some comments on the future expectation are also presented.

Polarographic and Voltammetric Determination of Trace Amounts of 3-Nitrofluoranthene

The polarographic behavior of 3-nitrofluoranthene was investigated by DC tast polarography (DCTP) and differential pulse polarography (DPP), both at a dropping mercury electrode, differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) and adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV), both at a hanging mercury drop electrode. Optimum conditions have been found for its determination by the given methods in the concentration ranges of 1 × 10-6-1 × 10-4 mol l-1 (DCTP), 1 × 10-7-1 × 10-4 mol l-1 (DPP), 1 × 10-8-1 × 10-6 mol l-1 (DPV) and 1 × 10-9-1 × 10-7 mol l-1 (AdSV), respectively. Practical applicability of these techniques was demonstrated on the determination of 3-nitrofluoranthene in drinking and river water after its preliminary separation and preconcentration using liquid-liquid and solid phase extraction with the limits of determination 4 × 10-10 mol l-1 (drinking water) and 2 × 10-9 mol l-1 (river water).

Polarographic and voltammetric determination of trace amounts of 2-nitronaphthalene

The polarographic behaviour of 2-nitronaphthalene was investigated by DC tast polarography (DCTP) and differential pulse polarography (DPP), both at a dropping mercury electrode, and differential pulse voltammetry and adsorptive stripping voltammetry, both at a hanging mercury drop electrode. Optimum conditions have been found for the determination of 2-nitronaphthalene by the given methods in the concentration ranges of 2 x 10(-6) - 1 x 10(-4), 2 x 10(-7) - 1 x 10(-4), 1 x 10(-8) - 1 x 10(-4) and 2 x 10(-9) - 1 x 10(-8) M, respectively. Practical applicability of these techniques was demonstrated by the determination of 2-nitronaphthalene in drinking and river water after its preliminary separation and preconcentration using liquid-liquid and solid-phase extraction with limits of determination of 3 x 10(-10) M (drinking water) and 3 x 10(-9) M (river water).

Polarographic and Voltammetric Determination of Submicromolar Concentrations of Genotoxic 1,5-Dinitronaphthalene

Polarographic and voltammetric behavior of 1,5-dinitronaphthalene was investigated using tast polarography and differential pulse polarography at a classic dropping mercury electrode and differential pulse voltammetry and adsorptive stripping voltammetry at a hanging mercury drop electrode. Optimum conditions have been found for the determination of tested substance in the concentration range 2-10 μmol l-1 in tast polarography, 0.2-1 μmol l-1 in differential pulse polarography at a classic dropping mercury electrode or differential pulse voltammetry at a hanging mercury drop electrode, and 0.02-0.1 μmol l-1 using adsorptive stripping voltammetry. A possible mechanism of the electrochemical reduction of 1,5-dinitronaphthalene at mercury electrodes is discussed.

Ultrasound-assisted extraction of nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from soil prior to gas chromatography-mass detection

Continuous ultrasound-assisted extraction of nitropolycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from soil prior to their individual separation and determination by gas chromatography (GC) with MS-MS detection is presented here. A multivariate optimisation of the variables affecting the continuous extraction step (namely, probe position, ultrasound radiation amplitude, percentage of duty cycle of ultrasonic exposure, sonication time, total extractant volume, extractant flow rate and temperature of the water-bath in which the extraction cell was placed) was performed. The method was compared with the reference EPA method 3540 using natural contaminated soils. Similar efficiencies were obtained but with a drastic reduction of both the extraction time (10 min versus 24 h) and the extractant volume (less than 10 ml versus 100 ml) by the proposed method. Detection limits of low picogram were obtained, with repeatability and reproducibility between 4.21-5.70 and 5.20-7.23%, respectively.

Comparison of the static, dynamic and static-dynamic pressurised liquid extraction modes for the removal of nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from soil with on-line filtration-preconcentration

The three operational modes of pressurised liquid extraction (PLE) (namely, static, dynamic and static-dynamic) have been applied for the extraction of nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from both spiked and natural contaminated soils. A comparison of the three modes in terms of experimental set-up used, extraction time needed for total removal of the analytes and precision has been carried out. The use of a flow-injection manifold as interface between every pressurised extractor and a filtration-preconcentration system has allowed the partial automation of the proposed approaches. Efficiencies close to 100% have been provided by the three operational modes. However, the static-dynamic mode has been proved as the most suitable alternative providing the shortest extraction time (25 min) versus the static (30 min) and the dynamic (50-70 min) modes. Gas chromatography with MS-MS ion preparation mode has been used providing both high selectivity (no interferences were observed) and sensitivity (detection limits of low pg). The comparison of the proposed approaches with the reference method 3540 of the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has shown that both methods provide similar efficiencies with an important shortening in the extraction time (25-70 min by PLE versus 24 h by the EPA method). The use of water as leaching agent has avoided the use of organic solvents providing an environmentally friendly method.

Static pressurised liquid extraction of nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from soils with on-line filtration-preconcentration prior to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry detection

Nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons have been extracted from both spiked and natural contaminated soils by using static pressurised liquid extraction. The variables governing the extraction (namely, pressure, extraction time, temperature and number of static extraction cycles) have been optimised using the experimental design methodology. A laboratory-made pressurised liquid extractor has been used allowing its coupling to a filtration-preconcentration system through a flow injection interface, thus providing a partially automated approach. Gas chromatography with MS-MS ion preparation mode has been used for individual separation-identification/quantification providing both high selectivity (no interferences were observed) and sensitivity (detection limits of low pg). The comparison of the proposed approach with the reference EPA Method 3540 has shown that both methods provide similar efficiencies but with dramatic saving of time by the former (30 min vs. 24 h). The use of water as leaching agent avoids the use of organic solvents, thus providing an environmentally friendly method.

Automated fast extraction of nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from soil by focused microwave-assisted Soxhlet extraction prior to gas chromatography--electron-capture detection

An approach for the automated fast extraction of nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (nitroPAHs) from soil, using a focused microwave-assisted Soxhlet extractor, is proposed. The main factors affecting the extraction efficiency (namely: irradiation power, irradiation time, number of cycles and extractant volume) were optimised by using experimental design methodology. The reduction of the nitro-PAHs to amino-PAHs and the derivatisation of the reduced analytes with heptafluorobutyric anhydride was mandatory prior to the separation-determination step by gas chromatography--electron-capture detection. The proposed approach has allowed the extraction of these pollutants from spiked and "real" contaminated soils with extraction efficiencies similar to those provided by the US Environmental Protection Agency methods 3540-8091, but with a drastic reduction in both the extraction time and sample handling, and using less organic solvent, as 75-85% of it was recycled.

Selective detection of nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and constant neutral loss scanning

The development of a method for selective detection of nitrated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (nitro-PAHs) among other polycyclic aromatic compounds (PACs) is described. The method is based on electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), performed with a triple quadrupole analyzer and constant neutral loss (CNL) scanning. When subjected to ESI conditions, nitro-PAHs give rise to M(-), [M - H](-) and [M - H + 16](-) ions, which in turn produce fragments by losing 30 u, most probably NO. Other PACs do not undergo such fragmentations, and these differences can be exploited for selective detection of nitro-PAHs among other PACs. Nitro-PAHs can therefore be monitored through the loss of 30 u occurring under negative ion mode ESI conditions. Toward the full development of a screening method for nitro-PAHs, this article first discusses some general aspects of the negative ion mode full-scan ESI mass spectra obtained for these compounds and other PAH derivatives. Because the extent of observation of the loss of 30 u is sensitive to the ESI conditions used, the effects of ionization parameters such as solvent used, declustering voltage, and solvent flow rate are evaluated and discussed. Setting these parameters is very important, especially when interfacing a high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) system with the ESI source of a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. Preliminary results of on-line microbore HPLC/ESI-MS separations of PAC standards are presented, and elution/ionization conditions discussed.

Polarographic and Voltammetric Determination of 1-Nitropyrene

The polarographic behaviour of 1-nitropyrene was investigated by tast polarography, differential pulse polarography (both with a dropping mercury electrode), differential pulse voltammetry, and adsorptive stripping voltammetry (both with a hanging mercury drop electrode). Optimum conditions have been found for its determination by the given methods in the concentration ranges 2-100, 0.2-100, 0.1-10, and 0.001-0.01 μmol l-1, respectively.