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Some of the most interesting things we know, and don't know, about the biochemistry and physiology of elasmobranch fishes (sharks, skates and rays). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2016; 199:21-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2016.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Revised: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 03/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Davidson BC, Nel W, Rais A, Namdarizandi V, Vizarra S, Cliff G. Comparison of total lipids and fatty acids from liver, heart and abdominal muscle of scalloped (Sphyrna lewini) and smooth (Sphyrna zygaena) hammerhead sharks. SPRINGERPLUS 2014; 3:521. [PMID: 25279312 PMCID: PMC4167885 DOI: 10.1186/2193-1801-3-521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Liver, heart and abdominal muscle samples from scalloped (Sphyrna lewini) and smooth (Sphyrna zygaena) hammerhead sharks were analysed to characterise their lipid and fatty acid profiles. Samples were compared both between and within species, but there were no significant differences in total lipids for either comparison, although much greater total amounts were found in the liver samples. Within the individual fatty acids, the only significant differences were greater amounts of 22:6n-3, total n-3 polyunsaturates and total polyunsaturates in smooth, when compared to scalloped, hammerhead liver. This may reflect the more wide spread distribution of this species into cooler waters. Within both species the liver levels of the same fatty acid fractions decreased from spring to summer, which may correlate with changes in fatty acid profile to adapt to any differences in amount or species of prey consumed, or other considerations, eg. buoyancy, however there was no data to clarify this.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce Clement Davidson
- Saint James School of Medicine, PO Box 318, Albert Lake Drive, The Quarter, Anguilla, AI-2640 British West Indies
| | - Wynand Nel
- Saint James School of Medicine, PO Box 318, Albert Lake Drive, The Quarter, Anguilla, AI-2640 British West Indies
| | - Afsha Rais
- Saint James School of Medicine, PO Box 318, Albert Lake Drive, The Quarter, Anguilla, AI-2640 British West Indies
| | - Vahid Namdarizandi
- Saint James School of Medicine, PO Box 318, Albert Lake Drive, The Quarter, Anguilla, AI-2640 British West Indies
| | - Scott Vizarra
- Saint James School of Medicine, PO Box 318, Albert Lake Drive, The Quarter, Anguilla, AI-2640 British West Indies
| | - Geremy Cliff
- KwaZulu-Natal Sharks Board, and Biomedical Resource Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Private Bag 2, Umhlanga Rocks, 4320, Durban, 4056 KwaZulu-Natal South Africa
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Somero GN, Yancey PH. Osmolytes and Cell‐Volume Regulation: Physiological and Evolutionary Principles. Compr Physiol 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/cphy.cp140110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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The unusual energy metabolism of elasmobranch fishes. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2009; 155:417-34. [PMID: 19822221 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2009] [Revised: 09/28/2009] [Accepted: 09/29/2009] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The unusual energy metabolism of elasmobranchs is characterized by limited or absent fatty acid oxidation in cardiac and skeletal muscle and a great reliance on ketone bodies and amino acids as oxidative fuels in these tissues. Other extrahepatic tissues in elasmobranchs rely on ketone bodies and amino acids for aerobic energy production but, unlike muscle, also appear to possess a significant capacity to oxidize fatty acids. This organization of energy metabolism is reflected by relatively low plasma levels of non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) and by plasma levels of the ketone body ss-hydroxybutyrate that are as high as those seen in fasted mammals. The preference for ketone body oxidation rather than fatty acid oxidation in muscle of elasmobranchs under routine conditions is opposite to the situation in teleosts and mammals. Carbohydrates appear to be utilized as a fuel source in elasmobranchs, similar to other vertebrates. Amino acid- and lipid-fueled ketogenesis in the liver, the lipid storage site in elasmobranchs, sustains the demand for ketone bodies as oxidative fuels. The liver also appears to export NEFA and serves a buoyancy role. The regulation of energy metabolism in elasmobranchs and the effects of environmental factors remain poorly understood. The metabolic organization of elasmobranchs was likely present in the common ancestor of the Chondrichthyes ca. 400million years ago and, speculatively, it may reflect the ancestral metabolism of jawed vertebrates. We assess hypotheses for the evolution of the unusual energy metabolism of elasmobranchs and propose that the need to synthesize urea has influenced the utilization of ketone bodies and amino acids as oxidative fuels.
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Treberg JR, Crockett EL, Driedzic WR. Activation of Liver Carnitine Palmitoyltransferase‐1 and Mitochondrial Acetoacetyl‐CoA Thiolase Is Associated with Elevated Ketone Body Levels in the ElasmobranchSqualus acanthias. Physiol Biochem Zool 2006; 79:899-908. [PMID: 16927236 DOI: 10.1086/505993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/12/2006] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Elasmobranch fishes are an ancient group of vertebrates that have unusual lipid metabolism whereby storage lipids are mobilized from the liver for peripheral oxidation largely as ketone bodies rather than as nonesterified fatty acids under normal conditions. This reliance on ketones, even when feeding, implies that elasmobranchs are chronically ketogenic. Compared to specimens sampled within 2 d of capture (recently captured), spiny dogfish Squalus acanthias that were held for 16-33 d without apparent feeding displayed a 4.5-fold increase in plasma concentration of d- beta -hydroxybutyrate (from 0.71 to 3.2 mM) and were considered ketotic. Overt activity of carnitine palmitoyltransferase-1 in liver mitochondria from ketotic dogfish was characterized by an increased apparent maximal activity, a trend of increasing affinity (reduced apparent K(m); P=0.09) for l-carnitine, and desensitization to the inhibitor malonyl-CoA relative to recently captured animals. Acetoacetyl-CoA thiolase (ACoAT) activity in isolated liver mitochondria was also markedly increased in the ketotic dogfish compared to recently captured fish, whereas no difference in 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase activity was found between these groups, suggesting that ACoAT plays a more important role in the activation of ketogenesis in spiny dogfish than in mammals and birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason R Treberg
- Ocean Sciences Centre, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland A1C 5S7, Canada.
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Speers-Roesch B, Ip YK, Ballantyne JS. Metabolic organization of freshwater, euryhaline, and marine elasmobranchs: implications for the evolution of energy metabolism in sharks and rays. J Exp Biol 2006; 209:2495-508. [PMID: 16788033 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.02294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
To test the hypothesis that the preference for ketone bodies rather than lipids as oxidative fuel in elasmobranchs evolved in response to the appearance of urea-based osmoregulation, we measured total non-esterified fatty acids (NEFA) in plasma as well as maximal activities of enzymes of intermediary metabolism in tissues from marine and freshwater elasmobranchs,including: the river stingray Potamotrygon motoro (<1 mmol l–1 plasma urea); the marine stingray Taeniura lymma, and the marine shark Chiloscyllium punctatum (>300 mmol l–1 plasma urea); and the euryhaline freshwater stingray Himantura signifer, which possesses intermediate levels of urea. H. signifer also were acclimated to half-strength seawater(15‰) for 2 weeks to ascertain the metabolic effects of the higher urea level that results from salinity acclimation. Our results do not support the urea hypothesis. Enzyme activities and plasma NEFA in salinity-challenged H. signifer were largely unchanged from the freshwater controls, and the freshwater elasmobranchs did not show an enhanced capacity for extrahepatic lipid oxidation relative to the marine species. Importantly, and contrary to previous studies, extrahepatic lipid oxidation does occur in elasmobranchs, based on high carnitine palmitoyl transferase (CPT) activities in kidney and rectal gland. Heart CPT in the stingrays was detectable but low,indicating some capacity for lipid oxidation. CPT was undetectable in red muscle, and almost undetectable in heart, from C. punctatum as well as in white muscle from T. lymma. We propose a revised model of tissue-specific lipid oxidation in elasmobranchs, with high levels in liver,kidney and rectal gland, low or undetectable levels in heart, and none in red or white muscle. Plasma NEFA levels were low in all species, as previously noted in elasmobranchs. D-β-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase(d-β-HBDH) was high in most tissues confirming the importance of ketone bodies in elasmobranchs. However, very low d-β-HBDH in kidney from T. lymma indicates that interspecific variability in ketone body utilization occurs. A negative relationship was observed across species between liver glutamate dehydrogenase activity and tissue or plasma urea levels, suggesting that glutamate is preferentially deaminated in freshwater elasmobranchs because it does not need to be shunted to urea production as in marine elasmobranchs.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Speers-Roesch
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, NIG 2W1, Canada
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Ballantyne JS. Mitochondria: aerobic and anaerobic design--lessons from molluscs and fishes. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2005; 139:461-7. [PMID: 15544968 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2004.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2004] [Revised: 09/16/2004] [Accepted: 09/18/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The contributions of Peter Hochachka to the development of comparative and adaptational biochemistry are substantial. In particular, he and his academic offspring made major contributions to the understanding of the metabolism of molluscs and fishes. These two large taxonomic groups each have marine, freshwater and terrestrial/semiterrestrial representatives, and their mitochondrial metabolism has been shaped by these environmental conditions. In particular, the importance of amino acids and lipids as energy sources has interesting correlations with the environment and the osmotic strategy used. In marine molluscs, amino acids are important aerobic energy sources, and are used as osmolytes and participate in anaerobic metabolism. In marine elasmobranchs, amino acids and ketone bodies, but not lipids per se, are important energy sources in extrahepatic tissues. Marine and freshwater teleost fish by contrast use lipids as an extrahepatic energy source with minimal use of ketone bodies. Furthermore, ketone bodies are important in the metabolism of freshwater and terrestrial but not marine molluscs. The bases for these different metabolic plans may lie in the solute systems used by the different groups (e.g. amino acids in marine molluscs and urea in marine elasmobranchs). The various metabolic options used by fishes and molluscs indicate the plasticity of metabolic design in an environmental context.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S Ballantyne
- Department of Zoology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1.
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Seibel BA, Walsh PJ. Trimethylamine oxide accumulation in marine animals: relationship to acylglycerol storagej. J Exp Biol 2002; 205:297-306. [PMID: 11854367 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.205.3.297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) is a common and compatible osmolyte in muscle tissues of marine organisms that is often credited with counteracting protein-destabilizing forces. However, the origin and synthetic pathways of TMAO are actively debated. Here, we examine the distribution of TMAO in marine animals and report a correlation between TMAO and acylglycerol storage. We put forward the hypothesis that TMAO is derived, at least in part, from the hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine, endogenous or dietary, for storage as diacylglycerol ethers and triacylglycerols. TMAO is synthesized from the trimethylammonium moiety of choline, thus released, and is retained as a compatible solute in concentrations reflecting the amount of lipid stored in the body. A variation on this theme is proposed for sharks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad A Seibel
- NIEHS Marine and Freshwater Biomedical Sciences Center, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Miami, FL 33149, USA.
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Watson RR, Dickson KA. Enzyme activities support the use of liver lipid-derived ketone bodies as aerobic fuels in muscle tissues of active sharks. Physiol Biochem Zool 2001; 74:273-82. [PMID: 11247746 DOI: 10.1086/319667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Few data exist to test the hypothesis that elasmobranchs utilize ketone bodies rather than fatty acids for aerobic metabolism in muscle, especially in continuously swimming, pelagic sharks, which are expected to be more reliant on lipid fuel stores during periods between feeding bouts and due to their high aerobic metabolic rates. Therefore, to provide support for this hypothesis, biochemical indices of lipid metabolism were measured in the slow-twitch, oxidative (red) myotomal muscle, heart, and liver of several active shark species, including the endothermic shortfin mako, Isurus oxyrinchus. Tissues were assayed spectrophotometrically for indicator enzymes of fatty acid oxidation (3-hydroxy-o-acyl-CoA dehydrogenase), ketone-body catabolism (3-oxoacid-CoA transferase), and ketogenesis (hydroxy-methylglutaryl-CoA synthase). Red muscle and heart had high capacities for ketone utilization, low capacities for fatty acid oxidation, and undetectable levels of ketogenic enzymes. Liver demonstrated undetectable activities of ketone catabolic enzymes but high capacities for fatty acid oxidation and ketogenesis. Serum concentrations of the ketone beta-hydroxybutyrate varied interspecifically (means of 0.128-0.978 micromol mL(-1)) but were higher than levels previously reported for teleosts. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that aerobic metabolism in muscle tissue of active sharks utilizes ketone bodies, and not fatty acids, derived from liver lipid stores.
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Affiliation(s)
- R R Watson
- Department of Biological Science, California State University-Fullerton, Fullerton, CA 92834, USA
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Bedford JJ, Harper JL, Leader JP, Yancey PH, Smith RA. Betaine is the principal counteracting osmolyte in tissues of the elephant fish, Callorhincus millii (Elasmobranchii, Holocephali). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 1998. [DOI: 10.1016/s0305-0491(98)00013-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Ballantyne JS. Jaws: The Inside Story. The Metabolism of Elasmobranch Fishes. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0305-0491(97)00272-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Chapter 10 Metabolic organization of thermogenic tissues of fishes. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1995. [DOI: 10.1016/s1873-0140(06)80013-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Fish mitochondria. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-82033-4.50047-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Cao X, Kemp JR, Anderson PM. Subcellular localization of two glutamine-dependent carbamoyl-phosphate synthetases and related enzymes in liver ofMicropterus salmoides (largemouth bass) and properties of isolated liver mitochondria: Comparative relationship with elasmobranchs. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1991. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1402580104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Anderson PM. Ketone body and phosphoenolpyruvate formation by isolated hepatic mitochondria fromSqualus acanthias (spiny dogfish). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1990. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1402540206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Singer TD, Ballantyne JS. Absence of extrahepatic lipid oxidation in a freshwater elasmobranch, the dwarf stingrayPotamotrygon magdalenae: Evidence from enzyme activities. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1989. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.1402510312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Chamberlin ME, Strange K. Anisosmotic cell volume regulation: a comparative view. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY 1989; 257:C159-73. [PMID: 2669504 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.1989.257.2.c159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 324] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A variety of organisms and cell types spanning the five taxonomic kingdoms are exposed, either naturally or through experimental means, to osmotic stresses. A common physiological response to these challenges is maintenance of cell volume through changes in the concentration of intracellular inorganic and organic solutes, collectively termed osmolytes. Research on the mechanisms by which the concentration of these solutes is regulated has proceeded along several experimental lines. Extensive studies on osmotically activated ion transport pathways have been carried out in vertebrate cells and tissues. Much of our knowledge on organic osmolytes has come from investigations on invertebrates, bacteria, and protists. The relative simplicity of bacterial genetics has provided a powerful and elegant tool to explore the modifications of gene expression during volume regulation. An implication of this diverse experimental approach is that phylogenetically divergent organisms employ uniquely adapted mechanisms of cell volume regulation. Given the probability that changes in extracellular osmolality were physiological stresses faced by the earliest organisms, it is more likely that cell volume regulation proceeds by highly conserved physiological processes. We review volume regulation from a comparative perspective, drawing examples from all five taxonomic kingdoms. Specifically, we discuss the role of inorganic and organic solutes in volume maintenance and the mechanisms by which the concentrations of these osmolytes are regulated. In addition, the processes that may transduce volume perturbations into regulatory responses, such as stretch activation of ion channels, intracellular signaling, and genomic regulation, are discussed. Throughout this review we emphasize areas we feel are important for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Chamberlin
- Department of Zoological and Biomedical Sciences, Ohio University, Athens 45701
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