Cognitive, emotional, and physiological components of Test Anxiety

Translation of a scale measuring cognitive test anxiety (G-CTAS) and its psychometric examination among medical students in Germany

Aim of the study: Test anxiety expresses itself in a variety of physical and cognitive processes. Due to its influence on test performance, the cognitive component in particular can have a negative impact on those affected. A measuring instrument for this is not yet available in the German-speaking world but does exist in the form of the "Cognitive Test Anxiety Scale" (CTAS), among other languages, in English. The aim of this work was the creation and psychometric review of a German version of the scale (G-CTAS). Methods: A German translation of the scale was created using a forward-backward procedure. Statistical investigations were then carried out on a cohort of medical students, which included an item analysis with calculation of difficulty, variance and item discrimination as well as the determination of the scale's internal consistency. The criterion validity was examined using test performance and gender-specific differences. Results: The final version contains 26 matching items with acceptable item parameters (mean values >1.46, <3.13; variances >0.48; part-whole-discrimination-indices >0.37). Cronbach's alpha was 0.92, the scale was therefore found to be a reliable measuring instrument. The scale validity could be confirmed by significant differences (p<0.01) between total values of female and male participants as well as significant correlations (p<0.001) between total values and test performance in the written and oral part of the first state examination. Conclusion: With G-CTAS a suitable measuring instrument for cognitive test anxiety within the German-speaking world is available, which can be used, among other things, for studies concerning the relationship between stress, exams and test anxiety among medical students.

Examination Stress and Test Anxiety: A Cross-Cultural Perspective

This is a comparative study of the examination stress assessed either as test anxiety or in terms of its worry and emotionality components in 7,679 high school students (males and females) from four Asian (Indian, Jordanian, Chinese and Korean) and five Euro-American (Hungarian, Turkish, Indian, German and American) cultures. These comparisons have been made on the basis of data reported in the studies which used the English Test Anxiety Inventory (Spielberger, 1980), or its psychometrically equivalent versions in languages of the other eight cultures. The major conclusions are: (a) There are differences with respect to the levels and patterns of test anxiety in terms of its worry and emotionality components not only within Asian or Euro-American but also among Asian and Euro-American cultures. As such, higher test anxiety is a phenomenon not peculiar to the western cultures. Such findings can be explained not only in terms of the differences in the socio-cultural premises, but also in terms of the differences in material conditions; (b) Females, across nine cultures, have higher test anxiety, worry and emotionality than their male counterparts. Greater role expectation conflict in females seems to be the major factor for such a consistent gender difference. Methodological issues relevant to such a research across cultures have also been discussed.

Appraisal, Coping, Task Performance, and Cardiovascular Responses During the Evaluated Speaking Task

Appraisal, coping task performance, and cardiovascular responses were examined among men high and low in speech anxiety who prepared and performed a speech under evaluative conditions. Task appraisals were made before and after the evaluated speaking task; subjects also reported on coping reactions during preparation and performance. Speech-anxious men saw the task as more threatening: They were more stressed, anxious, distracted, and aware of their emotions, and focused on the passage of time; they also reported fewer positive self-statements. In presenting, they made less eye contact and performed more poorly. Performance was related to several appraisal and coping variables-notably, positive self-statements. Cardiovascular arousal was elevated in both groups during preparation and presentation, but the groups did not differ in blood pressure and heart rate responses. Discussion centers on implications of the findings for literatures on reactivity, anxiety, and coping.

Stress Inoculation Training

This article outlines the theory, research, and procedures of stress inoculation training (SIT). SIT consists of three overlapping phases. Their first phase, conceptualization, is an education phase that emphasizes the development of a warm, collaborative relationship through which a careful assessment and problem reconceptualization are completed. The second phase, skill acquisition and rehearsal, target and develop a repertoire of palliative and instrumental coping skills for anxiety reduction. A table of common cognitive coping skills is included to exemplify the range of coping skills employed. The third phase, application and follow-through, focuses upon activities that transfer coping skills to real life and prevent relapse. Finally, guidelines for the selection and design of individual and group application of stress inoculation training are provided.

Text Anxiety in Adolescents: The Role of Self-Criticism and Acceptance and Mindfulness Skills

The current study sets out to explore test anxiety in adolescent students. The effect of sociodemographic variables on test anxiety was controlled for and the relationship between test anxiety and other psychological constructs, such as self-criticism, social anxiety, acceptance and mindfulness, was examined. In addition, the predictive effect/power of these variables was analyzed and a comparative study between high and low test anxiety adolescents was conducted. Participants in this study were 449 high school students, 211 boys and 238 girls, with a mean age of 16.28 years. These participants completed a battery of self-report questionnaires composed by the Portuguese versions of Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI), Child Acceptance and Mindfulness Measure (CAMM), Forms of Self-Criticizing/Attacking and Self-Reassuring Scale (FSCRS), and the Social Anxiety and Avoidance Scale for Adolescents (SAASA). Results showed that gender, self-criticism and competencies for acceptance and mindfulness had a significant and an independent contribution on the prediction of test anxiety. The comparative study revealed that adolescents with high test anxiety score significantly higher in negative forms of self-criticism, social anxiety and lower in self-reassurance, acceptance and mindfulness, when compared to those with low test anxiety. Despite its exploratory nature, the current study adds to the existing knowledge on the influence of psychological processes, such as self-criticism and acceptance, on test anxiety. These findings might constitute a relevant contribution to psychological intervention with adolescents.

Test anxiety inventory: 30 years later

Research suggests that test anxiety is associated with a number of maladaptive factors. The majority of test anxiety research includes the Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) as a primary outcome variable. However, the TAI was normed on college undergraduates in 1980. The academic landscape has altered in a variety of ways in the past 30 years, which may result in out-of-date norms. This study examined changes in TAI scores in college undergraduates (n =437) as well as convergent validity with measures of trait anxiety and academic performance. Results indicated increases in TAI scores for females while holding constant for males. Additionally, females and males displayed positive correlations between the TAI and state-trait anxiety inventory, while only females displayed a significant negative correlation between the TAI and grade point average. Data provide evidence of changes in TAI scores. As a result, researchers should be careful when drawing conclusions based on original TAI norms, especially in the case of female undergraduates.

Coping and academic problem-solving ability in test anxiety

The present study examined coping tendencies and perceptions of problem-solving ability in test anxiety. A sample of 125 students completed the revised Ways of Coping Questionnaire, the Academic Problem-Solving Inventory, and measures of state and trait test anxiety. Correlational analyses confirmed that emotion-focused coping (i.e., avoidant and confrontive coping) was associated positively with test anxiety. Also, test-anxious individuals reported poorer ability to solve academic problems. Finally, regression analyses revealed that coping tendencies and perceived problem-solving ability predicted unique variance in test-anxiety scores. The results are discussed in terms of the need for a multidimensional model of test anxiety that includes coping processes and self-evaluations of problem-solving ability.

The role of nonacademic variables in passing the National Council Licensure Examination

This study addressed the relationship between performance on the National Council Licensure Examination (NCLEX) and differences in test anxiety, cognitions related to testing, and academic performance among 102 senior bachelor's degree nursing students. The study design was correlational and prospective in nature. Test anxiety was measured by the Test Anxiety Inventory; cognitions were measured by the Cognitive Assessment Tool; quality point average and Student Aptitude Test scores measured academic aptitude. Subjects, recruited from two universities in western Pennsylvania, were interviewed and completed the self-report measures. Three months later, NCLEX scores were collected on each subject. Pearson's product moment correlation, multiple regression, and chi 2 statistics were used to analyze the data. Research findings indicated that test anxiety was inversely related to passing score on the NCLEX. Academic aptitude positively correlated with passing score on the NCLEX. Negative cognitions were not inversely related to pass rate on the NCLEX. Multiple regression demonstrated that self-perceived grades and self-predicted NCLEX scores were the best predictors of actual NCLEX scores. Significant chi 2 statistics indicated that subjects successful on the NCLEX were more likely to believe they were good test-takers and reported more facilitative thoughts during exams than those who failed the NCLEX.