Biocide susceptibility and intracellular glutathione inEscherichia coli

Effect of microplastic on sorption, toxicity, and mineralization of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid ionic liquids

Recently, there has been significant focus on microplastics in the environment, especially regarding their role in sorption-desorption processes of emerging contaminants, impacting pollutant migration between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Notably, the newest pollutants in such environments are the herbicide formulations known as ionic liquids (ILs), which integrate the structure of classic herbicidal anion with surface-active cations acting as an adjuvant. In our study, we synthesized herbicidal ILs by combining 2,4-D anion with cetyltrimethylammonium [CTA] and didecyldimethylammonium [DDA] cations. We investigated whether ILs and the mixture of salts, when exposed to polyethylene (PE) microplastics, differ in properties. We analyzed their sorption on defined PE particles, evaluated toxicity on Pseudomonas putida KT2440 using trans/cis ratio of unsaturated fatty acids, and assessed biodegradability with OECD 301F standard test. Results indicate IL cations and anions behave as distinct entities, questioning IL synthesis feasibility. Hydrophobic adjuvants were found to adsorb onto PE microplastic surfaces (5-60% [CTA] > [DDA]), posing potential threats of surface-active xenobiotic accumulation. This highlights the need to explore microplastics' role as sorbents of hazardous adjuvants in agriculture, potentially competing with humic acids and affecting xenobiotic bioavailability. Consequently, xenobiotics may persist longer in the environment, facilitated by microplastic mobility between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. KEY POINTS: • Microplastics act as sorbents, accumulating xenobiotics and limiting biodegradation. • Sorption of surfactant cations on microplastics reduces soil bacteria toxicity. • Research confirms independent action of ions from ionic liquids in the environment.

Unraveling the effects of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) microplastic ageing on the sorption and toxicity of ionic liquids with 2,4-D and glyphosate herbicides

Microplastics represent a novel category of environmental pollutants, and understanding their interactions with typical xenobiotics is crucial. In this study, we investigated the impact of ionic liquids (ILs) containing herbicidal anions, namely glyphosate [Glyph] and 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetate [2,4-D], and the surfactant cation - dodecyltrimethylammonium [C12TMA] on acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) microplastics. The aim of the study was to assess the sorption capacity of microplastics that were present in both untreated and aged form using standard and modified Fenton methods. In addition, impact on toxicity and stress adaptation of the model soil bacterium Pseudomonas putida KT2440 was measured. Upon ageing, ABS microplastics underwent a fivefold increase in BET surface area and total pore volume (from 0.001 to 0.004 cm3/g) which lead to a dramatic increase in adsorption of the cations on ABS microplastics from 40 to 45% for virgin ABS to 75-80% for aged ABS. Toxicity was mainly attributed to hydrophobic cations in ILs (EC50 ∼ 60-65 mg/dm3), which was also mitigated by sorption on ABS. Furthermore, both cations and anions behaved similarly across different ILs, corresponding chlorides, and substrates used in the ILs synthesis. These findings highlight microplastics potential as hazardous sorbents, contributing to the accumulation of xenobiotics in the environment.

Water-soluble anionic polychloramide biocides based on maleic anhydride copolymers

Our goal was to develop film-forming polymers to extend the antimicrobial lifetimes of cleaned and disinfected surfaces. Antimicrobial polymers were prepared by first reacting poly(ethylene-alt-maleic anhydride) with isopropylamine, partially consuming the anhydride groups, followed by hydrolysis to give water-soluble, highly anionic polyamide PC3. Chlorination with NaOCl gave PC3Cl with oxidative chlorine contents up to 9 wt%. Dried, 5 µm thick, PC3Cl films, gave log 4 reductions in the concentration of Escherichia coli or Staphylococcus aureus exposed to films. A unique feature of the maleic anhydride copolymer platform was the ability to form covalent grafts to surfaces via anhydride reactions. PC3 solution was impregnated into cellulosic filter paper, heated to form ester linkages with cellulose, followed by chlorination with sodium dichloroisocyanurate dihydrate giving grafted PC3Cl. The treated paper (0.3 wt% PC3Cl) gave a log 4 reduction of E. coli concentration in 30 min.

Antibacterial properties of sophorolipid-modified gold surfaces against Gram positive and Gram negative pathogens

Sophorolipids are bioderived glycolipids displaying interesting antimicrobial properties. We show that they can be used to develop biocidal monolayers against Listeria ivanovii, a Gram-positive bacterium. The present work points out the dependence between the surface density and the antibacterial activity of grafted sophorolipids. It also emphasizes the broad spectrum of activity of these coatings, demonstrating their potential against both Gram-positive strains (Enteroccocus faecalis, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Streptococcus pyogenes) and Gram-negative strains (Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Salmonella typhymurium). After exposure to sophorolipids grafted onto gold, all these bacterial strains show a significant reduction in viability resulting from membrane damage as evidenced by fluorescent labelling and SEM-FEG analysis.

Biocidal Properties of a Glycosylated Surface: Sophorolipids on Au(111)

Classical antibacterial surfaces usually involve antiadhesive and/or biocidal strategies. Glycosylated surfaces are usually used to prevent biofilm formation via antiadhesive mechanisms. We report here the first example of a glycosylated surface with biocidal properties created by the covalent grafting of sophorolipids (a sophorose unit linked by a glycosidic bond to an oleic acid) through a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) of short aminothiols on gold (111) surfaces. The biocidal effect of such surfaces on Gram+ bacteria was assessed by a wide combination of techniques including microscopy observations, fluorescent staining, and bacterial growth tests. About 50% of the bacteria are killed via alteration of the cell envelope. In addition, the roles of the sophorose unit and aliphatic chain configuration are highlighted by the lack of activity of substrates modified, respectively, with sophorose-free oleic acid and sophorolipid-derivative having a saturated aliphatic chain. This system demonstrates thus the direct implication of a carbohydrate in the destabilization and disruption of the bacterial cell envelope.

A genetically encoded acrylamide functionality

Nε-Acryloyl-l-lysine, a noncanonical amino acid with an electron deficient olefin, is genetically encoded in Escherichia coli using a pyrrolysyl-tRNA synthetase mutant in coordination with tRNACUAPyl. The acrylamide moiety is stable in cells, whereas it is active enough to perform a diverse set of unique reactions for protein modifications in vitro. These reactions include 1,4-addition, radical polymerization, and 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition. We demonstrate that a protein incorporated with Nε-acryloyl-l-lysine is efficiently modified with thiol-containing nucleophiles at slightly alkali conditions, and the acrylamide moiety also allows rapid radical copolymerization of the same protein into a polyacrylamide hydrogel at physiological pH. At physiological conditions, the acrylamide functionality undergoes a fast 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition reaction with diaryl nitrile imine to show turn-on fluorescence. We have used this observation to demonstrate site-specific fluorescent labeling of proteins incorporated with Nε-acryloyl-l-lysine both in vitro and in living cells. This critical development allows easy access to an array of modified proteins for applications where high specificity and reaction efficiency are needed.

Disinfection performances of stored acidic and neutral electrolyzed waters generated from brine solution

The feasibility of storing two electrolyzed waters (EW), acidic (AEW) and neutral (NEW), were elucidated through Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Salmonella typhii inactivation experiments. Free chlorine (FC) loss, pH and oxidation-reduction potentials were monitored for 30 days. Initial activities of fresh EWs were determined at 5 mg Cl(2)·min/L for 8 Log(10) inactivations of both strains. However, stored EWs exhibited activity declines which were associated to FC losses. All FC loss rates were first-order; AEWs underwent two phases of decays while NEWs had single decay rate constants. Two FC loss mechanisms were identified: chlorine (Cl(2)) volatilization and hypochlorous acid (HOCl) decomposition, wherein Cl(2) volatilization occurred at a faster rate. Chlorine volatilization was primarily influenced by storage condition as indicated by intensive FC losses on EWs stored in open vessels. Under the same storage conditions (open or closed), Cl(2)-rich AEW experienced higher FC losses which indicated the higher stability of HOCl-rich NEW. Overall, FC losses could be minimized if (1) samples are stored in closed vessels and (2) Cl(2) is not the main chlorine component. NEW in closed vessel is the most feasible system for EW storage; its initial activity (8 Log(10) inactivation) was preserved for up to 17 days.

Effects of dissolved and complexed copper on heterotrophic bacterial production in San Diego bay

Bacterial abundance and production, free (uncomplexed) copper ion concentration, total dissolved copper concentration, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), total suspended solids (TSS), and chlorophyll a were measured over the course of 1 year in a series of 27 sample "Boxes" established within San Diego Bay. Water was collected through a trace metal-clean system so that each Box's sample was a composite of all the surface water in that Box. Bacterial production, chlorophyll a, TSS, DOC, and dissolved copper all generally increased from Box 1 at the mouth of the Bay to Box 27 in the South or back Bay. Free copper ion concentration generally decreased from Box 1 to Box 27 presumably due to increasing complexation capacity within natural waters. Based on correlations between TSS, chlorophyll a, bacterial production or DOC and the ratio of dissolved to free Cu ion, both DOC and particulate (bacteria and algae) fractions were potentially responsible for copper complexation, each at different times of the year. CuCl2 was added to bacterial production assays from 0 to 10 microg L(-1) to assess acute copper toxicity to the natural microbial assemblage. Interestingly, copper toxicity appeared to increase with decreases in free copper from the mouth of the Bay to the back Bay. This contrasts the free-ion activity model in which higher complexation capacity should afford greater copper protection. When cell-specific growth rates were calculated, faster growing bacteria (i.e. toward the back Bay) appeared to be more susceptible to free copper toxicity. The protecting effect of natural dissolved organic material (DOM) concentrated by tangential flow ultrafiltration (>1 kDa), illite and kaolinite minerals, and glutathione (a metal chelator excreted by algae under copper stress) was assessed in bacterial production assays. Only DOM concentrate offered any significant protection to bacterial production under increased copper concentrations. Although the potential copper protecting agents were allowed to interact with added copper before natural bacteria were added to production assays, there may be a temporal dose-response relationship that accounts for higher toxicity in short production assays. Regardless, it appears that effective natural complexation of copper in the back portions of San Diego Bay limits exposure of native bacterial assemblages to free copper ion, resulting in higher bacterial production.

Glucose catabolism of Escherichia coli strains with increased activity and altered regulation of key glycolytic enzymes

This study investigates the effect of overexpression of key glycolytic enzymes exhibiting either native or alternative allosteric regulation on glucose bioconversion by resting Escherichia coli cells previously engineered for ethanol production. Homologous and heterologous pyruvate kinases (Pyk) and phosphofructokinases (Pfk) were individually and simultaneously overexpressed. Overexpression of the E. coli Pfk led to a shift from ethanol to lactate formation (three-fold above the control level) while overexpression of Pyks accelerated lactate formation two-fold with less reduction in ethanol formation. Further increase in lactate formation (five-fold above the control level) resulted from overexpression of Pfk from Lactobacillus bulgaricus which, unlike the E. coli Pfk, is not allosterically regulated by either phosphoenolpyruvate or ADP. These effects on the carbon flux distribution were accompanied by significant changes in the intracellular concentrations of several glycolytic intermediates. Increased Pfk levels led primarily to reduced levels of hexose phosphates. Increased Pyk activity resulted in more complex changes which were different for overexpressed native Pyk and for overexpressed Bacillus stearothermophilus Pyk, which differs from E. coli Pyk in lacking activation by fructose 1,6-diphosphate, but is allosterically activated by AMP and ribose 5-phosphate. Simultaneous overexpression of native Pfk and Pyk caused a Pfk-overexpression-like phenotype with lower levels of hexose phosphates and further increased lactate formation (nine-fold above the control level). The flux data demonstrate that overexpression of even single enzymes early in a central pathway can increase the fluxes to a particular metabolic product, although it may not affect the glucose uptake rate.

Flow cytometric analysis of chlorhexidine action

The mechanism by which chlorhexidine kills bacteria is still ill defined. We have investigated the action of chlorhexidine on Escherichia coli JM101/psb311 using a combination of flow cytometry and traditional methods. Chlorhexidine-induced uptake by E. coli cells of bis-(1,3-dibutylbarturic acid) trimethine oxonol and propidium iodide, which monitor membrane potential and membrane integrity respectively, was shown to be concentration dependent for the range 0.003-0.3 mmol-1. In addition, cells in log phase growth were more susceptible to 0.03 mmol-1 chlorhexidine than those in stationary phase. There was, however, no direct correlation between dye uptake and decline in colony forming units.

Methylchloroisothiazolone-induced growth inhibition and lethality in Escherichia coli

Exposure of log phase Escherichia coli cells to inhibitory levels of 5-chloro-2-methyl-isothiazolin-3-one (MCI) results in rapid bacteriostasis and a delayed onset of bactericidal activity. Inhibition of respiration occurs within the same time frame as bacteriostasis, and is followed by a decline in intracellular ATP levels. In vitro and in vivo experiments suggest that growth inhibition is the result of selective inhibition of particular targets, with succinate dehydrogenase being identified as a possible target. Such selectivity was not anticipated from this highly reactive molecule. MCI-induced lethality is positively correlated with a loss of reduced protein sulphydryls (r2 = 0.79). A greater than equimolar loss of reduced protein sulphydryls, compared with the number of MCI molecules added, and a reduction in killing by MCI after induction of the OxyR regulon suggest that free radical generation may have a role in the antibacterial activity of MCI. We present an examination of the in vivo effects of MCI exposure on bacterial cells, and evidence that the isothiazolones exhibit selectivity in their cellular targets and antimicrobial effects.