Identification of sex pheromone ofTetanolita mynesalis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), a prey species of bolas spider,Mastophora hutchinsoni

Synthesis of disparlure and monachalure enantiomers from 2,3-butanediacetals

2,3-Butanediacetal derivatives were used for the stereoselective synthesis of unsymmetrically substituted cis-epoxides. The procedure was applied for the preparation of both enantiomers of disparlure and monachalure, the components of the sex pheromones of the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) and the nun moth (Lymantria monacha) using methyl (2S,3R,5R,6R)-3-ethylsulfanylcarbonyl-5,6-dimethoxy-5,6-dimethyl-1,4-dioxane-2-carboxylate as the starting material.

Spider pheromones - a structural perspective

Spiders use pheromones for sexual communication, as do other animals such as insects. Nevertheless, knowledge about their chemical structure, function, and biosynthesis is only now being unraveled. Many studies have shown the existence of spider pheromones, but the responsible compounds have been elucidated in only a few cases. This review focuses on a structural approach because we need to know the involved chemistry if we are to understand fully the function of a pheromonal communication system. Pheromones from members of the spider families Pholcidae, Araneidae, Linyphiidae, Agenelidae, and Ctenidae are currently being identified and will be discussed in this review. Some of these compounds belong to compound classes not known from other arthropod pheromones, such as citric acid derivatives or acylated amino acids, whereas others originate from more common fatty acid metabolism. Their putative biosynthesis, their function, and the identification methods used will be discussed. Furthermore, other semiochemicals and the chemistry of apolar surface lipids that potentially might be used by spiders for communication are described briefly.

Small molecules from spiders used as chemical probes

Spiders are important species in ecological systems and as major predators of insects they are endowed with a plethora of low-molecular-weight natural products having intriguing biological activities. The isolation and biological characterization of these entities are well established, however, only very recently have these compounds been used as templates for the design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of synthetic analogues. In contrast, the investigation of compounds responsible for chemical communication between spiders is far less developed, but recently new light has been shed onto the area of pheromones and allomones from spiders. Herein, we recapitulate these recent results, put them into perspective with previous findings, and provide an outlook for future studies of these chemotypes.

Cheaters and liars: chemical mimicry at its finestThe present review is one in the special series of reviews on animal-plant interactions.In memory of Jan Tengö (1939–2010), who made exceptional contributions to our understanding of the chemical ecology of solitary bees, including chemical mimicry

Chemical mimicry is an essential part of certain interspecific interactions, where the outcome for both species may depend on the degree to which the original signals are mimicked. In this review, we discuss a number of specific cases relating to pollination and obtaining nutrient resources that we believe exemplify recent advances in our understanding of chemical mimicry. Subsequently, we suggest avenues for future ecological and chemical research that should allow us to gain further insight into the evolution of chemical mimicry.

Sex pheromone components of the bronzed cutworm, Nephelodes minians, a prey species of a bolas spider, Mastophora hutchinsoni

The bolas spider, Mastophora hutchinsoni, attracts adult males of four species of moths by aggressively mimicking their sex pheromone. Here, we report the identification of two sex pheromone components of one of these species, the bronzed cutworm, Nephelodes minians. Simultaneous gas chromatographic (flame ionization detection) and electroantennographic detection (EAD) analysis of extracts of the sex pheromone glands of female N. minians indicated two components eliciting strong EAD responses from a conspecific male antenna that corresponded in retention time with (Z)-11-hexadecenal (Z11-16:Ald) and (Z)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (Z11-16:OAc), using both polar and nonpolar columns. Mass spectra of these two peaks were identical to those of synthetic Z11-16:Ald and Z11-16:OAc. The double-bond positions were confirmed by GC-MS analysis of dimethyl disulfide derivatives of the putative pheromone components. In a field test, a 5:1 blend of Z11-16:Ald to Z11-16:OAc attracted male N. minians. Overall, there is no overlap in the chemical constituents of the sex pheromones of three moth species preyed upon by this bolas spider for which pheromones have now been identified. These studies suggest that bolas spiders are versatile in their ability to synthesize semiochemicals for different prey species. This versatility may be advantageous to a predator that has an otherwise extremely specialized hunting tactic.

Identification of epoxyhenicosadiene and novel diepoxy derivatives as sex pheromone components of the clear-winged tussock moth Perina nuda

Four EAG-active components (A-D) were found in the solvent extract of virgin females of the clear-winged tussock moth, Perina nuda. The most abundant component (B, ca. 250 ng/female) was identified as (3Z,6S,7R,9Z)-6,7-epoxyhenicosa-3,9-diene by GC-MS analyses of the extract, chemical derivatization, and comparative chiral HPLC. Minor components also elucidated were (3Z,9Z)-cis-6,7-epoxyicosa-3,9-diene, (A); (3R,45,6S,7R,9Z)-3,4-6,7-diepoxyhenicos-9-ene, (C); and its 3S,4R,6S,7R isomer, (D); with amounts of 0.4, 5, and 8 ng/female, respectively. Component B showed weak attractiveness to male moths in the field. The attractiveness was significantly enhanced by addition of component(s) C and/or D. No males were captured with either the antipode of component B or its mixtures with the minor components. In this field test, noctuid Hypocala rostrata males were also attracted with the synthetic P. nuda pheromone.

Polyene hydrocarbons and epoxides: a second major class of lepidopteran sex attractant pheromones

Polyene hydrocarbons and epoxides are used as pheromone components and sex attractants by four macrolepidopteran families: the Geometridae, Noctuidae, Arctiidae, and Lymantriidae. They constitute a second major class of lepidopteran pheromones, different from the C10-C18 acetates, alcohols, and aldehydes commonly found in other species. They are biosynthesized from diet-derived linoleic or linolenic acids and are characterized by C17-C23 straight chains, 1-3 cis double bonds separated by methylene groups, and 0, 1, or 2 epoxide functions. Pheromone blends are created from components with different chain lengths, numbers of double bonds, and functional groups, or from mixtures of epoxide regioisomers or enantiomers, with several examples of synergism between enantiomers. Behavioral antagonists also limit interspecific attraction, with numerous examples of antagonism by enantiomers. This review summarizes the taxonomic distribution, mechanisms used to generate unique pheromone blends, and the identification, synthesis, and biosynthesis of these compounds.