Pavia memory project: study design and first results

Regression-based normative data for Corsi Span and Supraspan learning and recall among Italian adults

INTRODUCTION

The Corsi Block Tapping Test, or Corsi Span (CS), is a widely used task to measure visuospatial short-term and working memory. The same setup can be used to administer the Corsi SupraSpan Learning (CSSL) and Recall (CSSR), tests assessing visuospatial long-term memory. While the CS has relatively recent normative data, those of the CSSL are outdated For CSSR, no normative data are available. Given this critical lack, our study aimed to provide updated norms for CS, CSSL, and specifically for the recall delayed phase (CSSR).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A sample of 340 healthy participants, aged between 20 and 89, took part in the study. Norms were developed using a regression approach and defined using rank equivalent scores and percentiles.

RESULTS

Age and education influenced Corsi's Span, while SupraSpan Learning and Recall were influenced by age, education, and span. The comparison with previous norms for Span and SupraSpan Learning shows a high level of agreement.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides integrated norms to evaluate visuospatial memory in all aspects of immediate recall, long-term learning and delayed recall. Its use is needed to assess specific neuropsychological deficits, dissociate visuospatial versus verbal memory deficits and allow the evaluation of memory in patients with limited verbal abilities.

Adaptation of dementia screening for vision-impaired older persons: administration of the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE)

In epidemiologic field studies on the prevalence and incidence of dementia the problems associated with the cognitive testing of visually impaired individuals are rarely discussed. In the Leipzig Longitudinal Study of the Aged (LEILA 75+) a version of the Mini-Mental State Examination for the visually impaired (MMSE-blind) was employed from which all items requiring image processing had been omitted. To be able to interpret the test results and include vision-impaired individuals in the field study, the scores for the full MMSE were estimated by conducting linear transformation of the scores obtained on the MMSE-blind. The method of linear transformation is based on certain theoretical assumptions that are examined in this article. Linear transformation of scores has proved to be a valid procedure only for individuals with very high or very low cognitive performance. Thus, evaluation of the estimated full MMSE scores based on the norms for the original MMSE is not recommended. A blind version of the MMSE with age- and education-specific norms that has been validated as a screening tool for dementia is therefore presented.

Are cognitively impaired individuals adequately represented in community surveys? Recruitment challenges and strategies to facilitate participation in community surveys of older adults. A review

BACKGROUND

Dementia is the most important age-related disorder and subject to a substantial body of epidemiological research. However, field work in elderly populations faces special challenges which may reduce response rates and invalidate survey results. Therefore, this paper will review more recent prevalence studies of dementia to examine how recruitment issues and their influence on the study outcome have been addressed.

METHODS

Field studies of the elderly with the main focus on prevalence of dementia published over the last 10 years will be systematically reviewed. The review concerns sampling frames, ways to include institutionalised individuals, response rates and strategies to deal with special challenges of field work in elderly populations such as mortality, fragility and sensory impairment. Furthermore, papers were evaluated regarding the extent to which recruitment outcomes were discussed.

RESULTS

The literature is characterised by a disregard of recruitment issues to a varying extent. Mortality, functional dependency and sensory impairment (all positively related to dementia) are barely taken into account in the study design and rarely discussed. As a consequence, cognitively impaired individuals are likely to be underrepresented in most community studies.

CONCLUSION

Strategies to deal with special challenges of field work in the elderly in a systematic manner and to facilitate participation in population surveys of the elderly are crucial and will be outlined. Communication on recruitment issues is essential to improve the validity of study outcomes.

Conventional and new antidepressant drugs in the elderly

Depression in the elderly is nowadays a predominant health care problem, mainly due to the progressive aging of the population. It results from psychosocial stress, polypathology, as well as some biochemical changes which occur in the aged brain and can lead to cognitive impairments, increased symptoms from medical illness, higher utilization of health care services and increased rates of suicide and nonsuicide mortality. Therefore, it is very important to make an early diagnosis and a suitable pharmacological treatment, not only for resolving the acute episode, but also for preventing relapse and enhancing the quality of life. Age-related changes in pharmacokinetics and in pharmacodynamics have to be kept into account before prescribing an antidepressant therapy in an old patient. In this paper some of the most important and tolerated drugs in the elderly are reviewed. Tricyclic antidepressants have to be used carefully for their important side effects. Nortriptyline, amytriptiline, clomipramine and desipramine as well, seem to be the best tolerated tricyclics in old people. Second generation antidepressants are preferred for the elderly and those patients with heart disease as they have milder side effects and are less toxic in overdose and include the so called atypicals, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, serotonin noradrenalene reuptake inhibitors and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors. Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors are useful drugs in resistant forms of depression in which the above mentioned drugs have no efficacy; the last generation drugs (reversible MAO inhibitors), such as meclobemide, seem to be very successful. Mood stabilizing drugs are widely used for preventing recurrences of depression and for preventing and treating bipolar illness. They include lithium, which is sometimes used especially to prevent recurrence of depression, even if its use is limited in old patients for its side effects, the anticonvulsants carbamazepine and valproic acid. Putative last generation mood stabilizing drugs include the dihydropyridine L-type calcium channel blockers and the anticonvulsants phenytoin, lamotrigine, gabapentin and topiramate, which have unique mechanisms of action and also merit further systematic study. Psychotherapy is often used as an adjunct to pharmacotherapy, while electroconvulsant therapy is used only in the elderly patients with severe depression, high risk of suicide or drug resistant forms.

Neurological findings in the normal elderly: prevalence and relationships with memory performance

Data on the presence of neurological signs in the normal elderly are scanty, and data on their possible relationships to memory performances are not available. Three-hundred and ninety-six subjects born in 1925 and living in Pavia, who were recruited for a larger study on memory impairment in the elderly, underwent a standardized neurological examination (SNE) consisting of 22 items, an anamnestic interview and a memory test battery. A high number of signs was found, particularly for regressive reflexes (snout in 50% of cases). There was a tendency for several alterations to be found in the same subject. Accordingly, four clusters of signs were identified. Diabetes mellitus, hypertension, heart disease or past head trauma were not consistently associated with SNE scores. While memory impairment was also not consistently associated with SNE scores, there was a higher tendency for memory-impaired subjects to show at least one abnormal SNE score.