Disturbances in gonadal axis in women with anorexia nervosa

Clinical and biochemical discriminants between functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea (FHA) and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)

BACKGROUND

Secondary oligo/amenorrhoea occurs in 3%-5% of women of reproductive age. The two most common causes are polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) (2%-13%) and functional hypothalamic amenorrhoea (FHA) (1%-2%). Whilst both conditions have distinct pathophysiology and their diagnosis is supported by guidelines, in practice, differentiating these two common causes of menstrual disturbance is challenging. Moreover, both diagnoses are qualified by the need to first exclude other causes of menstrual disturbance.

AIM

To review clinical, biochemical and radiological parameters that could aid the clinician in distinguishing PCOS and FHA as a cause of menstrual disturbance.

RESULTS

FHA is uncommon in women with BMI > 24 kg/m² , whereas both PCOS and FHA can occur in women with lower BMIs. AMH levels are markedly elevated in PCOS; however, milder increases may also be observed in FHA. Likewise, polycystic ovarian morphology (PCOM) is more frequently observed in FHA than in healthy women. Features that are differentially altered between PCOS and FHA include LH, androgen, insulin, AMH and SHBG levels, endometrial thickness and cortisol response to CRH. Other promising diagnostic tests with the potential to distinguish these two conditions pending further study include assessment of 5-alpha-reductase activity, leptin, INSL3, kisspeptin and inhibin B levels.

CONCLUSION

Further data directly comparing the discriminatory potential of these markers to differentiate PCOS and FHA in women with secondary amenorrhoea would be of value in defining an objective probability for PCOS or FHA diagnosis.

Feasibility and effect of a Pilates program on the clinical, physical and sleep parameters of adolescents with anorexia nervosa

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Anorexia nervosa (AN) becomes chronic, with high physical, psychological and social morbidity and high mortality without early and effective treatment. The impact of physical exercise as a coadjutant to conventional treatment in this clinical population has been studied with favorable results. Although a Pilates program could be beneficial for patients with AN, no study has analyzed its feasibility and effects in adolescents with AN. Therefore, this study evaluated the safety of a Pilates program and investigated the feasibility and effect in adolescents with AN.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this prospective quasi-experimental study, body composition, blood analysis, sedentary time, physical activity and time of sleep, and physical fitness were measured objectively before and after a 10-week Pilates supervised program.

RESULTS

Twelve female adolescents with AN (14.6 ± 1.7 years old) completed the program, with a session attendance rate of 96%, a persistence rate of 100%. There were significant increases in height, plasma calcium and sleep efficiency. Significant decreases in plasma follitropin, sleep duration and, duration and number of night perturbations were observed.

CONCLUSION

A Pilates program is safe and feasible in adolescents with AN when they have a controlled and stable weight, and such a program could be a viable alternative among treatment programs to achieve better sleep quality.

Pulsatile gonadotropin-releasing hormone therapy in persistent amenorrheic weight-recovered anorexia nervosa patients

OBJECTIVE

To compare hormonal and clinical responses to GnRH pulsatile treatment in weight-recovered anorexia nervosa patients (Rec-AN) with persistent functional hypothalamic amenorrhea (HA) vs. in patients with secondary and primary HA.

DESIGN

Retrospective, observational, ambulatory study.

SETTING

University hospital.

PATIENT(S)

Forty-one women: 19 Rec-AN (body mass index >18.5 kg/m² without menses recovery), 15 secondary HA without any eating disorders patients (SHA), and 7 primary HA patients (PHA).

INTERVENTION(S)

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone pulsatile therapy.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Baseline E₂, LH, and P plasma levels and their changes during induction cycles; ovulation, follicular recruitment, and pregnancies.

RESULTS

The Rec-AN group displayed higher basal E₂ and LH plasma levels after GnRH injection compared with SHA and PHA. Higher E₂ and LH levels were observed during induction cycles in Rec-AN compared with SHA and PHA. Follicular recruitment was higher in Rec-AN. The ovulation rate was higher in Rec-AN compared with PHA but similar to SHA.

CONCLUSION(S)

This study showed increased gonadal status and higher E₂ response to pulsatile GnRH therapy in persistent amenorrheic weight-recovered AN compared with HA from other causes. It suggests that their individual set-point of body weight allowing a fully functional gonadal axis is not reached yet. Specific factors of gonadal inertia in Rec-AN still remain unclear.

Nutrition and pubertal development

Nutrition is one of the most important factors affecting pubertal development. Puberty entails a progressive nonlinear process starting from prepubescent to full sexual maturity through the interaction and cooperation of biological, physical, and psychological changes. Consuming an adequate and balanced healthy diet during all phases of growth (infancy, childhood and puberty) appears necessary both for proper growth and normal pubertal development. Girls begin puberty at an earlier age compared to past decades. Excessive eating of many processed, high-fat foods, may be the cause of this phenomenon. Overweight or obese children are more likely to enter puberty early. Some evidence suggests that obesity can accelerate the onset of puberty in girls and may delay the onset of puberty in boys. Moreover, the progression of puberty is affected by nutrition. On the other hand, puberty triggers a growth spurt, which increases nutritional needs including macro and micronutrients. Increased caloric, protein, iron, calcium, zinc and folate needs have to be provided during this critical period of rapid growth. Severe primary or secondary malnutrition also can delay the onset and progression of puberty. The higher incidence of anorexia nervosa and bulimia in adolescents imposes a nutritional risk on pubertal development. Moreover, many environmental endocrine disruptors (EDs) have been identified that can significantly impair the normal course of puberty. This mini-review sums up some important findings in this important complex that link nutrition and pubertal development.

Ghrelin: central and peripheral implications in anorexia nervosa

Increasing clinical and therapeutic interest in the neurobiology of eating disorders reflects their dramatic impact on health. Chronic food restriction resulting in severe weight loss is a major symptom described in restrictive anorexia nervosa (AN) patients, and they also suffer from metabolic disturbances, infertility, osteopenia, and osteoporosis. Restrictive AN, mostly observed in young women, is the third largest cause of chronic illness in teenagers of industrialized countries. From a neurobiological perspective, AN-linked behaviors can be considered an adaptation that permits the endurance of reduced energy supply, involving central and/or peripheral reprograming. The severe weight loss observed in AN patients is accompanied by significant changes in hormones involved in energy balance, feeding behavior, and bone formation, all of which can be replicated in animals models. Increasing evidence suggests that AN could be an addictive behavior disorder, potentially linking defects in the reward mechanism with suppressed food intake, heightened physical activity, and mood disorder. Surprisingly, the plasma levels of ghrelin, an orexigenic hormone that drives food-motivated behavior, are increased. This increase in plasma ghrelin levels seems paradoxical in light of the restrained eating adopted by AN patients, and may rather result from an adaptation to the disease. The aim of this review is to describe the role played by ghrelin in AN focusing on its central vs. peripheral actions. In AN patients and in rodent AN models, chronic food restriction induces profound alterations in the « ghrelin » signaling that leads to the development of inappropriate behaviors like hyperactivity or addiction to food starvation and therefore a greater depletion in energy reserves. The question of a transient insensitivity to ghrelin and/or a potential metabolic reprograming is discussed in regard of new clinical treatments currently investigated.