Distinguishing between applied research and practice

The Evolution of the Conceptually Systematic Dimension and Its Current Functions in Applied Behavior Analysis

What does it mean to be conceptually systematic in contemporary applied behavior analysis (ABA) research and practice? To answer this question, the present study conducted a historical analysis of ABA scholars' interpretations of the conceptually systematic dimension of ABA over the last 55 years. The present article found the current characteristics of the conceptually systematic dimension are indeed sufficient to suggest ABA's conceptual independence from the experimental analysis of behavior or any other subdisciplines of behavior analysis. Based on this finding, this article addresses the challenges in contemporary ABA field such as ABA's own basic and applied continuum, translational research, and its relationship with other disciplines' research and practice.

Identifying Trends in the Open-Access Behavior Analytic Literature via Computational Analyses (I): Simple Descriptions of Text

Published research in scientific journals are critical resources for researchers as primary sources about: what is important in the field, the direction the field is headed, how the field relates to other sciences, and as a historical record for each of these. In this exploratory study, we analyzed the articles of five behavior analytic journals to identify trends in these areas. To do this, we downloaded all available articles (N = 10,405) since the inception of five behavior analytic journals and one control journal. We then used computational techniques to turn the collection of raw text into a structured dataset for descriptive, exploratory analyses. We found consistent differences in the length and variability of published research across behavior analytic journals compared to a control journal. We also found increasing article lengths over time which, combined with the previous finding, may highlight changing editorial contingencies that influence the writing behavior of researchers. Further, we found evidence suggesting distinct (though still connected) verbal communities between the experimental analysis of behavior and applied behavior analysis. Lastly, keyword trends suggest that increased focus on "functional analyses," "problem behavior," and "autism spectrum disorder" currently dominates the research being published in these journals similar to the practitioner arm of behavior analysis. Researchers interested in studying published behavior analytic textual stimuli will find the corresponding open dataset useful. And, for those interested in computational analyses of these data, this first pass at simple descriptions provides a launching point for much fruitful future research.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40616-022-00179-4.

Evaluating the Quality of Behavior Analytic Practitioner Training Programs

Dixon and colleagues (2015) asserted that faculty research productivity is a key indicator of the quality of university programs that train future practitioners of behavior analysis. Based on their analysis of publications in select journals, the authors concluded that many faculty in such programs have published little to no research. Some alternative measures of both faculty research productivity and the quality of practitioner training programs are suggested here.

Evolution of research on interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorder: implications for behavior analysts

The extraordinary success of behavior-analytic interventions for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has fueled the rapid growth of behavior analysis as a profession. One reason for this success is that for many years behavior analysts were virtually alone in conducting programmatic ASD intervention research. However, that era has ended. Many investigators from other disciplines are now carrying out large-scale intervention studies and beginning to report successes of their own. The increasing number and range of studies has the potential to improve services for individuals with ASD, and it challenges behavior analysts to intensify their research efforts.

What is evidence-based behavior analysis?

Although applied behavior analysts often say they engage in evidence-based practice, they express differing views on what constitutes "evidence" and "practice." This article describes a practice as a service offered by a provider to help solve a problem presented by a consumer. Solving most problems (e.g., increasing or decreasing a behavior and maintaining this change) requires multiple intervention procedures (i.e., a package). Single-subject studies are invaluable in investigating individual procedures, but researchers still need to integrate the procedures into a package. The package must be standardized enough for independent providers to replicate yet flexible enough to allow individualization; intervention manuals are the primary technology for achieving this balance. To test whether the package is effective in solving consumers' problems, researchers must evaluate outcomes of the package as a whole, usually in group studies such as randomized controlled trials. From this perspective, establishing an evidence-based practice involves more than analyzing the effects of discrete intervention procedures on behavior; it requires synthesizing information so as to offer thorough solutions to problems. Recognizing the need for synthesis offers behavior analysts many promising opportunities to build on their existing research to increase the quality and quantity of evidence-based practices.

A study in the founding of applied behavior analysis through its publications

This article reports a study of the founding of applied behavior analysis through its publications. Our methods included hand searches of sources (e.g., journals, reference lists), search terms (i.e., early, applied, behavioral, research, literature), inclusion criteria (e.g., the field's applied dimension), and (d) challenges to their face and content validity. Our results were 36 articles published between 1959 and 1967 that we organized into 4 groups: 12 in 3 programs of research and 24 others. Our discussion addresses (a) limitations in our method (e.g., the completeness of our search), (b) challenges to the validity of our methods and results (e.g., convergent validity), and (c) priority claims about the field's founding. We conclude that the claims are irresolvable because identification of the founding publications depends significantly on methods and because the field's founding was an evolutionary process. We close with suggestions for future research.

Trends in presentations at the annual conference of the association for behavior analysis

The present report analyzes trends in attendance and presentations at the annual conference of the Association for Behavior Analysis (ABA). Numbers of registered attendees were plotted over time. The trends show that the number of registered attendees has grown considerably over the last three decades, with the largest proportion of the growth occurring during the last 10 years. This growth is shown to be correlated with the introduction of board certification in behavior analysis (BCBA and BCABA). In addition, conference programs from 1980 through 2007 were coded, and all presentations were categorized into one of four areas (application, basic research, conceptual, and verbal behavior) based on the primary designator codes chosen by the authors at the time of submission. An analysis of the total number of presentations in each category indicates that applied research presentations have always outnumbered the other three categories. The absolute number of presentations related to application has grown faster than presentations in other categories. However, correcting for population growth shows that the relative proportion of presentations in the four areas has remained fairly constant over the last 28 years.

B. F. Skinner's contributions to applied behavior analysis

Our paper reviews and analyzes B. F. Skinner's contributions to applied behavior analysis in order to assess his role as the field's originator and founder. We found, first, that his contributions fall into five categorizes: the style and content of his science, his interpretations of typical and atypical human behavior, the implications he drew from his science for application, his descriptions of possible applications, and his own applications to nonhuman and human behavior. Second, we found that he explicitly or implicitly addressed all seven dimensions of applied behavior analysis. These contributions and the dimensions notwithstanding, he neither incorporated the field's scientific (e.g., analytic) and social dimensions (e.g., applied) into any program of published research such that he was its originator, nor did he systematically integrate, advance, and promote the dimensions so to have been its founder. As the founder of behavior analysis, however, he was the father of applied behavior analysis.

Certification, accreditation, and quality control in behavior analysis

Implementing quality control measures in the discipline and professional practice of behavior analysis is a challenging, but nevertheless important, step in the evolution of our field. The Association for Behavior Analysis currently seeks to ensure quality in behavior analysis by sponsoring an accreditation program for graduate academic programs and by promoting certification of individual practitioners. The accreditation reviews are conducted by ABA, whereas certification status is awarded by an independent, nonprofit credentialing entity: the Behavior Analyst Certification Board, Inc. Among the challenges that ABA faces as it pursues various quality control measures, particularly in its educational programs, are (a) how extensively should academic programs specify the verbal and nonverbal terminal repertoires in all three branches of behavior analysis (applied, experimental, and conceptual); (b) how extensively should programs that emphasize applied behavior analysis integrate science-based criteria for the evaluation of interventions; and (c) how extensively should programs that emphasize service delivery include training in formal research methodology.

Making behavioral technology transferable

The paucity of transferred behavioral technologies is traced to the absence of strategies for developing technology that is transferable, as distinct from strategies for conducting research, whether basic or applied. In the field of engineering, the results of basic research are transformed to candidate technologies that meet standardized criteria with respect to three properties: quantification, repetition, and verification. The technology of vitrification and storage of nuclear waste is used to illustrate the application of these criteria. Examples from behavior analysis are provided, together with suggestions regarding changes in practice that will accelerate the development and application of behavioral technologies.

Behavior analysis and the R&D paradigm

This paper considers research and development (R&D) as a style of investigation that holds promise for the field of behavior analysis. Contrasted with academic-style research, R&D tends to be highly targeted toward achievement of specific outcomes, which are determined by a user community. R&D is typically multidisciplinary in character and is coordinated by a funding source. R&D usually includes extensive field testing and systematically addresses technology transfer. A program of R&D focused on detector dogs serves as an exemplar of this approach for behavior analysis.

Some proposed relations among the domains of behavior analysis

The present article examines the nature of and relations among the domains of behavior analysis. It first proposes a set of annotated, descriptive criteria to aid in distinguishing the experimental analysis of behavior, applied behavior analysis, and service delivery. It then argues that the experimental analysis of behavior lies at one end of a continuum of behavior-analytic activity, with applied behavior analysis in the middle, service delivery at the other end, and the theoretical-philosophical-conceptual position known as "radical behaviorism" informing the three domains on the continuum. Finally, it argues that clarifying the distinctions among the domains of behavior analysis will help the behavior-analytic community to focus its efforts in training programs and overall support of behavior analysis.

Applied behavior analysis is ideal for the development of a land mine detection technology using animals

The detection and subsequent removal of land mines and unexploded ordnance (UXO) from many developing countries are slow, expensive, and dangerous tasks, but have the potential to improve the well-being of millions of people. Consequently, those involved with humanitarian mine and UXO clearance are actively searching for new and more efficient detection technologies. Remote explosive scent tracing (REST) using trained dogs has the potential to be one such technology. However, details regarding how best to train, test, and deploy dogs in this role have never been made publicly available. This article describes how the key characteristics of applied behavior analysis, as described by Baer, Wolf and Risley (1968, 1987), served as important objectives for the research and development of the behavioral technology component of REST while the author worked in humanitarian demining.

Comparison of direct observational methods for measuring stereotypic behavior in children with autism spectrum disorders

We compared partial-interval recording (PIR) and momentary time sampling (MTS) estimates against continuous measures of the actual durations of stereotypic behavior in young children with autism or pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified. Twenty-two videotaped samples of stereotypy were scored using a low-tech duration recording method, and relative durations (i.e., proportions of observation periods consumed by stereotypy) were calculated. Then 10, 20, and 30s MTS and 10s PIR estimates of relative durations were derived from the raw duration data. Across all samples, PIR was found to grossly overestimate the relative duration of stereotypy. Momentary time sampling both over- and under-estimated the relative duration of stereotypy, but with much smaller errors than PIR (Experiment 1). These results were replicated across 27 samples of low, moderate and high levels of stereotypy (Experiment 2).

Transferring behavioral technology across applications

Application flows naturally from good science, and behavioral toxicology is no exception. Phenomena discovered and procedures developed in behavioral laboratories are being applied on a wide scale in commercial, industrial, and governmental settings. In behavioral toxicology, this transfer of technology has occurred in an ad hoc manner, albeit with a degree of sophistication. The development of technology transfer in other disciplines is instructive. A symposium at the May 2001 meeting of the Behavioral Toxicology Society examined this issue, and some participants provide their contributions here. Henry Pennypacker examines the issue of whether behavioral procedures can meet the demanding standards required to transfer technology to commercial endeavors and concludes that, under some conditions, they can. He notes that the shortage of well-developed and transferred behavioral technologies results from a lack of understanding of the process of technology transfer on the part of behavior analysts. In the field of engineering, the results of basic research are transformed to candidate technologies that meet standardized criteria with respect to three properties: quantification, repetition, and verification. Kent Anger describes the challenging steps in the trail from the laboratory to wide-scale application-steps that are essential for the scaling up of any behavioral technique. Finally, Paul Mele describes the legal background to patenting and copyrighting ideas, a process that behaviorists have rarely used. Together, these topics identify the requirements and warn of the challenges and intricacies that await those who seek to transfer behavioral technology beyond the laboratory.