1
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Grabenauer M, Vikingsson S, Olson RA, Lyons FE, Davis LS, Hayes ED, Flegel RR. Systematic web monitoring of drug test subversion strategies in the United States. Drug Test Anal 2024. [PMID: 38520174 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Revised: 02/06/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/25/2024]
Abstract
As negative drug tests are frequently a condition for employment, some people who use drugs will try to subvert the testing. In this study, systematic web monitoring was used to investigate how drug test subversion is discussed online. Posts pertaining to drug test subversion were obtained from public websites and the dark web (n = 634, July-December 2021). Most information from public websites came from Twitter (65%), and 94% of dark web posts were from Reddit. The posts were manually coded to extract quantitative and qualitative information about drug test subversion tactics. Most posts discussed urine drug tests (85%), followed by hair (11%) and oral fluid (2%), and the most discussed drugs were marijuana (72%) and cocaine (7.3%). Urine drug test subversion mainly pertained to specimen substitution, with synthetic urine or urine from another person. Another strategy was to mask diluted urine by ingesting creatine. Urine adulteration was rarely discussed. Hair test subversion involved harsh treatments with products such as bleach, baking soda, and/or detergent. Hair removal was also discussed. Oral fluid test subversion focused on removing drugs from the oral cavity through vigorous brushing of teeth and tongue as well as the use of mouthwash, hydrogen peroxide, gum, and commercial detox products. This study highlights subversion strategies used by donors. Although little evidence was provided as to the effectiveness of these strategies, this information may help guide future studies and development of specimen validity testing to minimize the impact of drug test subversion attempts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Grabenauer
- Center for Forensic Science Advancement and Application, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Svante Vikingsson
- Center for Forensic Science Advancement and Application, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - Richard A Olson
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - Faith E Lyons
- Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Safety, Denver, Colorado, USA
| | - Lisa S Davis
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Eugene D Hayes
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, Maryland, USA
| | - Ronald R Flegel
- Division of Workplace Programs, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, Maryland, USA
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2
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Wissenbach DK, Binz TM, Steuer AE. Advances in testing for sample manipulation in clinical and forensic toxicology-part B: hair samples. Anal Bioanal Chem 2023; 415:5117-5128. [PMID: 37115212 PMCID: PMC10404185 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04706-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/18/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
As a continuation of part A, focusing on advances in testing for sample manipulation of urine samples in clinical and forensic toxicology, part B of the review article relates to hair, another commonly used matrix for abstinence control testing. Similar to urine manipulation, relevant strategies to manipulate a hair test are lowering drug concentrations in hair to undercut the limits of detection/cut-offs, for instance, by forced washout effects or adulteration. However, distinguishing between usual, common cosmetic hair treatment and deliberate manipulation to circumvent a positive drug test is often impossible. Nevertheless, the identification of cosmetic hair treatment is very relevant in the context of hair testing and interpretation of hair analysis results. Newly evaluated techniques or elucidation of specific biomarkers to unravel adulteration or cosmetic treatment often focused on specific structures of the hair matrix with promising strategies recently proposed for daily routine work. Identification of other approaches, e.g., forced hair-washing procedures, still remains a challenge in clinical and forensic toxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk K Wissenbach
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Tina M Binz
- Center for Forensic Hairanalytics, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Andrea E Steuer
- Department of Forensic Pharmacology & Toxicology, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine (ZIFM), University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190/52, CH-8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
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3
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Mestria S, Odoardi S, Biosa G, Valentini V, Strano Rossi S. Hair analysis: Assessment of homemade hair treatment effects on drug concentrations in the keratin matrix. Drug Test Anal 2023. [PMID: 37419869 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
Hair is the matrix of choice for investigating a subject's drug history over time, usually with specific forensic applications (license renewal, workplace drug testing, toxicological evaluation), and it is generally considered difficult to be tampered with. Nevertheless, some treatments promising to lower drug concentrations in hair are described online as how to "pass" a drug test. We selected three of these practices, claiming to be effective in decreasing drug concentrations-Treatment 1: (A) baking soda, (B) salicylic acid, (C) bleach; Treatment 2: (A) bleaching and (B) dyeing; Treatment 3: (A) white vinegar, (B) salicylic acid moisturizer, (C) liquid cleanser, and (D) dyeing. Quantitative results were compared with those of untreated hair strands, used as reference. We evaluated the efficacy of the treatment on drugs of abuse and benzodiazepines. Treatment 1 proved to be the most effective, since drug concentrations in treated hair were significantly lower than in untreated ones, although methadone and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) seemed to be less affected than cocaine and 6-monoacetylmorphine (MAM). The mean percentage values of treatment-induced decrease were up to 90% for cocaine, 81% for benzoylecgonine, 77% for morphine, 89% for MAM, 37% for methadone, 67% for ketamine, 80% for MDMA, 76% for methamphetamine, and 60% for THC, compared with the reference samples. There was no noticeable damage or discoloration of the keratin matrix, making it difficult for the technicians to determine if there was a treatment. This could be an issue for the application of cutoffs or when low concentrations of drugs are incorporated into the keratinic matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Serena Mestria
- Department of Healthcare Surveillance and Bioethics, Forensic Toxicology Laboratory, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore F. Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Sara Odoardi
- Department of Healthcare Surveillance and Bioethics, Forensic Toxicology Laboratory, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore F. Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Giulia Biosa
- Department of Healthcare Surveillance and Bioethics, Forensic Toxicology Laboratory, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore F. Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Valeria Valentini
- Department of Healthcare Surveillance and Bioethics, Forensic Toxicology Laboratory, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore F. Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Sabina Strano Rossi
- Department of Healthcare Surveillance and Bioethics, Forensic Toxicology Laboratory, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore F. Policlinico Gemelli IRCCS, Rome, Italy
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4
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Steiner R, Kaulich A, Müller D, Schlagenhauf P. Hair concentrations of anti-malarials in returned travellers-the HAIR study: Proof of principle analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis 2023; 54:102590. [PMID: 37209974 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2023.102590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 05/10/2023] [Accepted: 05/13/2023] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hair analysis to identify substance use is an established methodology. This could also be a method to monitor adherence to antimalarial drugs. We aimed to establish a methodology to determine hair concentrations of atovaquone, proguanil and mefloquine in travellers using chemoprophylaxis. METHODS A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for simultaneous analysis of the antimalarial drugs -atovaquone (ATQ), proguanil (PRO) and mefloquine (MQ), in human hair. The hair samples from five volunteers were used for this proof-of-concept analysis. Three volunteers were taking daily atovaquone/proguanil (ATQ/PRO) chemoprophylaxis and two volunteers were using weekly mefloquine (MQ) chemoprophylaxis. RESULTS With this proof-of-principle analysis, we could show that ATQ/PRO and MQ are integrated into the hair matrix. Chemoprophylaxis could be quantified with the established method. In hair segments, maximal concentrations of 3.0 ng/mL/20 mg hair proguanil, 1.3 ng/mL/20 mg hair atovaquone and 78.3 ng/mL/20 mg hair mefloquine were measured. Moreover, malaria drug concentration changes correlated with the time interval since finishing the chemoprophylaxis regimen. CONCLUSIONS The validated method was used successfully for the analysis of antimalarial-drug positive hair samples containing atovaquone, proguanil or mefloquine. This research shows that hair can be used for adherence monitoring of chemoprophylaxis and paves the way for larger studies and optimized procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regula Steiner
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Anne Kaulich
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Müller
- Institute for Clinical Chemistry, University Hospital Zurich, Raemistrasse 100, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Patricia Schlagenhauf
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Travellers' Health, Competence Centre for Military Medicine Biology, Division of Global and Public Health, Institute for Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Prevention, University of Zurich Centre for Travel Medicine, Hirschengraben 84, 8001, Zürich, Switzerland.
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5
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Zhang Q, Li X, Qiao S, Shen Z, Zhou Y. Factors influencing hair lamivudine concentration among people living with HIV in Guangxi, China. Antivir Ther 2021; 25:143-149. [PMID: 32478676 DOI: 10.3851/imp3360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hair antiretroviral concentration has served as an innovative and objective measure of antiretroviral adherence. However, some factors (for example, pharmacokinetics and hair characteristics) may contribute to the variability of hair antiretroviral concentration that may threaten the validity and reliability of the hair measure as a biomarker of adherence. This study aimed to examine the potential factors that may influence the measure of hair antiretroviral concentration. METHODS Hair samples from a cohort of 372 people living with HIV (PLHIV) receiving lamivudine (300 mg/day) in Guangxi, China. Lamivudine concentration was analysed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Multivariable linear regression was used to evaluate the associations of hair lamivudine concentration with age, sex, ethnicity, height, weight, body mass index, duration of HIV diagnosis, duration of current regimen, dosing schedule, concomitant antiretroviral medications, frequency of hair washing, hair care products use, hair cosmetic treatment and self-reported adherence. RESULTS Multivariable models revealed that frequency of hair washing (β=-0.221, P=0.001), dosing schedule (β=0.141, P=0.036) and self-reported adherence (β=0.160, P=0.002) were associated with hair lamivudine concentration. CONCLUSIONS We observed that, among those potential factors, hair lamivudine concentration was influenced by frequency of hair washing and dosing schedule. Therefore, frequency of hair washing and dosing schedule should be considered in future research using hair lamivudine concentration as a measure of lamivudine exposure and biomarker of adherence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Zhang
- South Carolina SmartState Center for Healthcare Quality (CHQ), Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA.,Institute of Pedagogy and Applied Psychology, School of Public Administration, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xiaoming Li
- South Carolina SmartState Center for Healthcare Quality (CHQ), Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Shan Qiao
- South Carolina SmartState Center for Healthcare Quality (CHQ), Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Zhiyong Shen
- Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanning, China
| | - Yuejiao Zhou
- Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Nanning, China
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6
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Yang H, Wang X, Liu M, Deng H, Yu M, Xiang P. Detection of amfepramone and its metabolite cathinone in human hair: Application to a uthentic cases of amfepramone use. Drug Test Anal 2021; 14:101-109. [PMID: 34405558 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, overseas anti-obesity drugs including amfepramone have flowed into China through the internet or personal import by travelers. Amfepramone is controlled in China and is not available as a pharmaceutical product. It is obtainable either through the internet or imported by individuals across the border. The abuse of amfepramone is causing serious health problems. A method for the detection and quantification of amfepramone and its metabolite cathinone in human hair was developed and fully validated using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Approximately 10 mg of hair was weighed and pulverized with extraction solvent (a mixture of methanol: acetonitrile: 2 mM ammonium formate [pH 5.3] [25:29:46, v/v/v]). The limit of detection (LOD) and the limit of quantitation (LOQ) were 5 and 10 pg/mg, respectively. The method was linear over a concentration range from 10 to 10,000 pg/mg. The accuracy varied from -9.3% to 2.3%, with acceptable intra- and inter-day precision. The validated method was successfully applied to 17 authentic cases. The amfepramone concentrations ranged from 11.7 to 209 pg/mg, with a median of 30.2 pg/mg, and the hair cathinone concentrations ranged from 11.9 to 507 pg/mg, with a median of 54.0 pg/mg. This is the first report of amfepramone concentrations in human hair from amfepramone users. Cathinone can be incorporated into hair after amfepramone use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, China.,Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Mengxi Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, China.,Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hongxiao Deng
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Miao Yu
- School of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
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7
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Kintz P. Negative hair test result after long-term drug use. About a case involving morphine and literature review. Clin Chem Lab Med 2020; 59:267-273. [PMID: 32692696 DOI: 10.1515/cclm-2020-0950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Although it has been accepted by most scientists that drugs circulating in blood are eligible to hair incorporation, this cannot be considered as a general statement. A 42-year old man was found dead in his swimming pool. He was living alone, and seen alive 2 days before by a neighbour. Femoral blood, cardiac blood and hair were collected during body examination. Free morphine was identified in femoral blood at 28 ng/mL, corresponding to his treatment for chronic pain (3 × 5 mg daily for 4 months). However, with a limit of quantitation (LOQ) at 10 pg/mg, segmental hair testing (3 × 1 cm) for morphine was negative. In this paper, the author has reviewed the different factors which can be responsible of this discrepancy. Several variables can influence the detection of a drug in hair and the author has listed reasons that can account for the absence of analytical response in hair after drug administration. The drug may not be incorporated in hair. That is the case for large bio-molecules, such as hormones, which cannot be transferred from the blood capillaries to growing cells of hair. Cosmetic treatments (perming, colouring, bleaching) or environmental aggressions (ultraviolet radiation, thermal application) will always reduce the concentrations. In this case, the lack of morphine detection was attributed to the effects of chlorinated water from the swimming pool. A negative hair result is also a result. However, this can be interpreted in three different ways: 1. the owner of the hair did not take or was not exposed to the specific drug, 2. the procedure is not sensitive enough to detect the drug, or 3. something happened after drug incorporation (cosmetic treatment, environmental influence).
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Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Kintz
- X-Pertise Consulting, 42 rue principale, 67206, Mittelhausbergen, France.,Institut de médecine légale, 11 rue Humann, 67000, Strasbourg, France
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8
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Davies C, Gautam L, Grela A, Morrissey J. Variability associated with interpreting drugs within forensic hair analysis: A three-stage interpretation. J Appl Toxicol 2020; 40:868-888. [PMID: 32126591 DOI: 10.1002/jat.3959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Hair analysis is capable of determining both an individual's long-term drug history and a single exposure to a drug, which can be particularly important for corroborating incidents of drug-facilitated crimes. As a source of forensic evidence that may be used in a court of law, it must be credible, impartial and reliable, yet the pathways of drug and metabolite entry into hair are still uncertain. Many variables may influence drug analysis results, most of which are outside of the control of an analyst. An individual's pharmacokinetic and metabolic responses, hair growth rates, drug incorporation routes, axial migration, ethnicity, age and gender, for example, all display interpersonal variability. At present there is little standardization of the analytical processes involved with hair analysis. Both false positives and negative results for drugs are frequently encountered, regardless of whether a person has consumed a drug or not. In this regard, we have categorized these variables and proposed a three-stage analytical approach to facilitate forensic toxicologists, hair analysis experts, judiciaries and service users in the analytical and interpretation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Davies
- Forensic and Investigative Studies, School of Life Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Lata Gautam
- Forensic and Investigative Studies, School of Life Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Agatha Grela
- School of Human and Social Sciences, University of West London, Brentford, London, UK
| | - Joanne Morrissey
- Forensic and Investigative Studies, School of Life Science, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Anglia Ruskin University, Cambridge, UK
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9
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Kintz P, Gheddar L, Ameline A, Arbouche N, Raul J. Hair testing for doping agents. What is known and what remains to do. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:316-322. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pascal Kintz
- X‐Pertise Consulting 42 rue principale F‐67206 Mittelhausbergen France
- Institut de médecine légale 11 rue Humann F‐67000 Strasbourg France
| | - Laurie Gheddar
- Institut de médecine légale 11 rue Humann F‐67000 Strasbourg France
| | - Alice Ameline
- Institut de médecine légale 11 rue Humann F‐67000 Strasbourg France
| | - Nadia Arbouche
- Institut de médecine légale 11 rue Humann F‐67000 Strasbourg France
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10
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Braal CL, Veerman GDM, Peric R, Aerts JGJV, Mathijssen RHJ, Koolen SLW, de Bruijn P. Quantification of the tyrosine kinase inhibitor erlotinib in human scalp hair by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry: Pitfalls for clinical application. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2019; 172:175-182. [PMID: 31051406 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2019.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
An LC-MS/MS method was developed and validated to quantify the tyrosine kinase inhibitor erlotinib in human scalp hair, as alternative matrix to monitor long-term erlotinib exposure. Hair samples from 10 lung cancer patients were measured and correlated with plasma concentrations. Hair segments of 1 ± 0.1 cm each were pulverized and for at least 18 h incubated in methanol at ambient temperature. A liquid-liquid extraction purified the extracts and they were analyzed with LC-MS/MS, using erlotinib-d6 as internal standard. The procedure method was validated for selectivity, sensitivity, precision, lower limit of detection, linearity and accuracy. The within and between run precisions including the lower limit of quantification did not exceed 12.5%, while the accuracy ranged from 103 to 106%. A weak correlation between hair and plasma concentration was found (R2 = 0.48). Furthermore, a large inter-individual variability was noted in the disposition of both plasma and hair samples. The highest hair concentrations were observed in black hair compared with other (grey and brown) hair colors. Generally, a linear reduction in hair concentration was found from proximal to distal hair segments. Additional in vitro experiments suggest an accelerated degradation of erlotinib in hair by artificial UV light and also wash-out by shampoo mixtures pretreatment compared with control samples. In conclusion, a reliable and robust LC-MS/MS method was developed to quantify erlotinib in hair. However, clinical and in vitro evaluations showed that the method is not suitable for monitoring long-term erlotinib exposure. The pitfalls of this application outweigh the current benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Louwrens Braal
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - G D Marijn Veerman
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Robert Peric
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Joachim G J V Aerts
- Department of Pulmonary Medicine, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Ron H J Mathijssen
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Stijn L W Koolen
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Department of Hospital Pharmacy, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Peter de Bruijn
- Department of Medical Oncology, Erasmus MC Cancer Institute, Erasmus University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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11
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A Study on Photostability of Amphetamines and Ketamine in Hair Irradiated under Artificial Sunlight. Brain Sci 2018; 8:brainsci8060096. [PMID: 29843429 PMCID: PMC6025081 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci8060096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2018] [Revised: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Drugs incorporated into hair are exposed to the environment, and cosmetic and chemical treatments, with possible decreases in their content. Knowledge concerning the effect of sunlight on drug content in hair can be helpful to forensic toxicologists, in particular, when investigating drug concentrations above or below pre-determined cut-offs. Twenty authentic positive hair samples were selected which had previously tested positive for amphetamines and/or ketamine. Washed hair were divided into two identical strands, with the former exposed at 765 W/m2 (300–800 nm spectrum of irradiance) for 48 h in a solar simulator, and the latter kept in the dark. Hair samples were extracted and analyzed by liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry detection. The percentage of photodegradation was calculated for each analyte (i.e., amphetamine, methamphetamine, methylendioxyamphetamine, ketamine, and norketamine). In parallel, photodegradation processes of standard molecules dissolved in aqueous and organic solutions were studied. In 20 hair samples positive for the targeted analytes, exposure to artificial sunlight induced an appreciable decrease in drug concentrations. The concentration ranges in the non-irradiated hair samples were 0.01–24 ng/mg, and 65% of samples exhibited a decrease in post-irradiation samples, with reduction from 3% to 100%. When more drugs were present in the same hair sample (i.e., MDMA and ketamine) the degradation yields were compound dependent. A degradation product induced by irradiation of ketamine in aqueous and methanol solutions was identified; it was also found to be present in a true positive hair sample after irradiation. Ketamine, amphetamines, and their metabolites incorporated in the hair of drug users undergo degradation when irradiated by artificial sunlight. Only for ketamine was a photoproduct identified in irradiated standard solutions and in true positive irradiated hair. When decisional cut-offs are applied to hair analysis, photodegradation must be taken into account since sunlight may produce false negative results. Moreover, new markers could be investigated as evidence of illicit drug use.
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12
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Devi JL, Zahra P, Vine JH, Whittem T. Determination of testosterone esters in the hair of male greyhound dogs using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Drug Test Anal 2017; 10:460-473. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Revised: 06/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jayasree Leela Devi
- Translational Research and Animal Clinical Trial Study Group, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences; The University of Melbourne; Victoria Australia
| | - Paul Zahra
- Racing Analytical Services Limited; Flemington Victoria Australia
| | - John H. Vine
- Racing Analytical Services Limited; Flemington Victoria Australia
| | - Ted Whittem
- Translational Research and Animal Clinical Trial Study Group, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences; The University of Melbourne; Victoria Australia
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13
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Pritchett JS, Phinney KW. Influence of Chemical Straightening on the Stability of Drugs of Abuse in Hair. J Anal Toxicol 2014; 39:13-6. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bku106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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14
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Binz TM, Baumgartner MR, Kraemer T. The influence of cleansing shampoos on ethyl glucuronide concentration in hair analyzed with an optimized and validated LC-MS/MS method. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 244:20-4. [PMID: 25151107 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/19/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Ethyl glucuronide (EtG) is widely used as a marker for assessment of alcohol consumption behavior. In this study the influence of special cleansing shampoos on ethyl glucuronide concentrations in hair was investigated. For that purpose an optimized LC-MS/MS method was developed using a Hypercarb™ porous graphitic carbon (PGC) column and validated according to the guidelines of the German Society of Toxicological and Forensic Chemistry (GTFCh). Twenty-five hair samples of persons with known alcohol consumption behavior were investigated (21 positive samples and 4 blank samples). The hair samples were divided into two strands of hair and were analyzed after treatment with one out of four cleansing shampoos and without shampoo treatment. EtG concentrations in hair did not show any significant differences after a single application of the different cleansing shampoos. EtG was still detectable in all the positive hair samples without significant concentration change. These results clearly demonstrated that a single application of the tested cleansing shampoos did not remove EtG from hair and therefore had no influence on EtG concentration in analytical hair analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina M Binz
- University of Zurich, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, Center for Forensic Hairanalytics, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Markus R Baumgartner
- University of Zurich, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, Center for Forensic Hairanalytics, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Thomas Kraemer
- University of Zurich, Zurich Institute of Forensic Medicine, Department of Forensic Pharmacology and Toxicology, Zurich, Switzerland.
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15
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Agius R. Utility of coloured hair for the detection of drugs and alcohol. Drug Test Anal 2014; 6 Suppl 1:110-9. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ronald Agius
- Department of Forensic and Clinical Toxicology; Siemensstraße 40 32105 Bad Salzuflen Germany
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16
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Favretto D, Tucci M, Monaldi A, Ferrara SD, Miolo G. A study on photodegradation of methadone, EDDP, and other drugs of abuse in hair exposed to controlled UVB radiation. Drug Test Anal 2014; 6 Suppl 1:78-84. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Revised: 12/18/2013] [Accepted: 12/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Donata Favretto
- School of Medicine, Forensic Toxicology and Antidoping; University Hospital of Padova; Via Falloppio 50 I-35121 Padova Italy
| | - Marianna Tucci
- School of Medicine, Forensic Toxicology and Antidoping; University Hospital of Padova; Via Falloppio 50 I-35121 Padova Italy
| | - Alice Monaldi
- School of Medicine, Forensic Toxicology and Antidoping; University Hospital of Padova; Via Falloppio 50 I-35121 Padova Italy
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences; University of Padova; via Marzolo 5 I-35121 Padova Italy
| | - Santo Davide Ferrara
- School of Medicine, Forensic Toxicology and Antidoping; University Hospital of Padova; Via Falloppio 50 I-35121 Padova Italy
| | - Giorgia Miolo
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences; University of Padova; via Marzolo 5 I-35121 Padova Italy
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17
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Röhrich J, Becker J, Kaufmann T, Zörntlein S, Urban R. Detection of the synthetic drug 4-fluoroamphetamine (4-FA) in serum and urine. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 215:3-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2010] [Revised: 03/30/2011] [Accepted: 04/06/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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18
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Abstract
An increasing number of toxicology laboratories are choosing to expand the services they offer to include hair testing in response to customer demands. Hair provides the toxicologist with many advantages over conventional matrices in that it is easy to collect, is a robust and stable matrix that does not require refrigeration, and most importantly, provides a historical profile of an individual's exposure to drugs or analytes of interest. The establishment of hair as a complementary technique in forensic toxicology is a direct result of the success of the matrix in medicolegal cases and the wide range of applications. However, before introducing hair testing, laboratories must consider what additional requirements they will need that extend beyond simply adapting methodologies already validated for blood or urine. Hair presents many challenges with respect to the lack of available quality control materials, extensive sample handling protocols and low drug concentrations requiring greater instrument sensitivity. Unfortunately, a common pitfall involves over-interpretation of the findings and must be avoided.
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19
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Barroso M, Dias M, Vieira DN, López-Rivadulla M, Queiroz JA. Mixed-mode solid-phase extraction for sample cleanup in hair analysis for methadone and its main metabolite. Biomed Chromatogr 2010; 24:1240-6. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.1434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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20
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21
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Curtis J, Greenberg M. Screening for drugs of abuse: Hair as an alternative matrix: a review for the medical toxicologist. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2009; 46:22-34. [DOI: 10.1080/15563650701261462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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22
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23
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Dolan K, Rouen D, Kimber J. An overview of the use of urine, hair, sweat and saliva to detect drug use. Drug Alcohol Rev 2004; 23:213-7. [PMID: 15370028 DOI: 10.1080/09595230410001704208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
This paper provides a brief overview of qualitative drug testing procedures using urine, hair, saliva and sweat specimens. Issues related to collection, analysis and interpretation of each specimen as well as their advantages and disadvantages are discussed. The biological detection of drug use involves a screening test which, if positive, is followed by a confirmatory test. Urine is the most widely used specimen in the detection of drugs. Urinalysis offers an intermediate window of detection (1-3 days). Hair analysis offers the largest window of detection (7-100+ days). Saliva analysis may be useful in determining very recent drug use (1-36 hours). The analysis of sweat may be useful for continuous monitoring of drug use (1-14 days). Drug testing has become a fast, convenient process with the development of point-of-collection drug testing devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Dolan
- National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
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24
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Abstract
During the last years in Germany a marked increase in the use of amphetamines such as 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) has been observed. The use of these recreational drugs is especially common among young people participating in rave parties. Occasionally ring-methoxylated phenethylamine derivatives like paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA) or paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA) are found in street drugs offered as ecstasy. These compounds exhibit a higher toxicity than the methylenedioxyamphetamine derivatives. We report on the death of a 22-year-old man after the ingestion of ecstasy pills containing PMMA and PMA. The PMMA concentration in femoral blood was 0.85 mg/l. Besides PMA (0.61 mg/l), amphetamine (0.21 mg/l), benzoylecgonine (<0.01 mg/l) and ethanol (0.46 per thousand ) were found in the blood. The case reflects the well-known fact that street drugs offered as ecstasy pills contain not necessarily MDMA but frequently differ in composition even if they have the same logo. Users of these pills therefore always take the risk of consuming pills with dangerous life-threatening ingredients. In many laboratories paramethoxyamphetamines are not detectable in routine analytical procedures. If the cause of an intoxication cannot be discovered by analytical routine methods, rarely occurring designer drugs such as PMA or PMMA should also be kept in mind.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jürgen Becker
- Institute for Legal Medicine, Johannes Gutenberg University, Am Pulverturm 3, 55131 Mainz, Germany.
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25
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Skopp G, Pötsch L, Mauden M, Richter B. Partition coefficient, blood to plasma ratio, protein binding and short-term stability of 11-nor-Delta(9)-carboxy tetrahydrocannabinol glucuronide. Forensic Sci Int 2002; 126:17-23. [PMID: 11955826 DOI: 10.1016/s0379-0738(02)00023-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
11-Nor-Delta(9)-carboxy tetrahydrocannabinol glucuronide (THCCOOglu) is a major metabolite of tetrahydrocannabinol in blood. Despite its mass spectrometric identification already in 1980, further physicochemical data of THCCOOglu have not been established. Therefore, the octanol/buffer partition coefficient P and the blood to plasma ratio b/p for THCCOOglu concentrations of 100 and 500ng/ml were investigated. Protein binding of the glucuronide was established from spiked albumin solutions at a level of 250ng/ml as well as from authentic samples. The data were compared to those of 11-nor-Delta(9)-carboxy tetrahydrocannabinol (THCCOOH). In addition, the short-term stability of THCCOOglu in plasma at different storage temperatures was studied. Analysis was performed by LC/MS/MS. The glucuronide partition coefficient P (mean: 17.4 and 18.0 for 100 and 500ng/ml, respectively) was unexpectedly lipophilic at pH 7.4. Its blood to plasma ratios averaged 0.62 and 0.68 at 100 and 500ng/ml, respectively. THCCOOglu was highly reversibly bound to albumin (mean: 97%), and the mean fraction bound did not differ from that determined from authentic samples. THCCOOglu degraded even at a storage temperature of 4 degrees C and THCCOOH was identified as a major decomposition product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gisela Skopp
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Heidelberg, Vossstr. 2, D-69115, Heidelberg, Germany.
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26
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Romano G, Barbera N, Lombardo I. Hair testing for drugs of abuse: evaluation of external cocaine contamination and risk of false positives. Forensic Sci Int 2001; 123:119-29. [PMID: 11728736 DOI: 10.1016/s0379-0738(01)00539-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In some laboratories hair testing may be the main method for the evaluation of individual's drug history, however, compelling evidence supports the possibility that the presence of a small amount of drug in hair can derive from external contamination. The aim of the present study is to verify if a single external contamination with a small amount of cocaine will last sufficiently long to make a contaminated subject indistinguishable from active users, and if normal washing practices together with the decontamination procedures are sufficient to completely remove the external contamination. The results obtained using the decontamination methods suggested in literature demonstrate that significant concentrations of cocaine (>1 ng/mg) and moderate quantities of benzoylecgonine (generally <0.5 ng/mg) are still detectable up to 10 weeks after contamination. These results question the reliability of hair testing. In fact, even using the most sophisticated decontamination procedures it is not possible to distinguish a drug-contaminated subject from an active user. Thus, while a negative result excludes both chronic use and "contact" with drugs, a positive result cannot and must not be interpreted as a sure sign of drug addiction, but should be further confirmed by urine analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Romano
- Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Catania, Via Biblioteca 4, 95124 Catania, Italy.
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27
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Claffey DJ, Ruth JA. Amphetamine adducts of melanin intermediates demonstrated by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Chem Res Toxicol 2001; 14:1339-44. [PMID: 11559051 DOI: 10.1021/tx0155303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The use of hair as a matrix for the determination of a history of drug abuse is becoming increasingly widespread. Melanin has been shown to play a key role in the incorporation of drugs in hair. The mechanism of this incorporation and the nature of the interaction remains poorly understood. Cationic drugs, such as amphetamine, are thought to be ionically bound to melanin; however, their inextricability has led to the suggestion that they may be covalently bound to a great degree. Identification of covalent adducts remains elusive due to the insoluble polymeric nature of melanin. We succeeded in identifying several such adducts by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF) analysis of the products of in vitro synthesis of melanin in the presence of amphetamine. Amphetamine was incubated with L-DOPA and mushroom tyrosinase under a stream of oxygen. After 1 h, a signal at m/z 281.1324 (n = 1, R = H) was observed. After 2 h, the major adduct mass visible in the spectrum was at m/z 470.1074. This appeared to be derived from the mono-decarboxylation of a minor adduct at m/z 514.1245 (n = 2, R = CO(2)H). A totally decarboxylated adduct was also observed at m/z 426.1448 (n = 2, R = H). These were identified as amphetamine adducts of indole quinones. Corroboration of their identity was obtained by observing the mass shifts with deuterated L-DOPA and amphetamine analogues. Accurate mass measurements using the reflectron mode of the MS showed that the smaller adduct was within 14 ppm, and the larger adducts were within 70 ppm of their theoretical monoisotopic masses. Postsource decay experiments agreed with our structural assignments.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Claffey
- Program in Molecular and Environmental Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, The University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colorado 80262, USA
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28
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Röhrich J, Zörntlein S, Becker J. Analysis of LSD in human body fluids and hair samples applying ImmunElute columns. Forensic Sci Int 2000; 107:181-90. [PMID: 10689571 DOI: 10.1016/s0379-0738(99)00162-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Immunoaffinity extraction units (LSD ImmunElute) are commercially available for the analysis of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in urine. The ImmunElute resin contains immobilized monoclonal antibodies to LSD. We applied the ImmunElute procedure to serum and also to human hair samples. For hair analysis the samples were first extracted with methanol under sonication. The extracts were then purified using the ImmunElute resin. LSD analysis was carried out with HPLC and fluorescence detection. The immunoaffinity extraction provides highly purified extracts for chromatographic analysis. The limit of detection (signal-to-noise ratio = 3) has been determined to be < 50 pg regardless of which sample material was used. The procedure was applied to authentic hair samples from drug abusers (n = 11). One of these samples tested positive with an amount of 110 pg LSD in 112 mg extracted hair corresponding to a concentration of 1 pg/mg.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Röhrich
- Institut für Rechtsmedizin, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Germany
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