Arthroscopic lift, drill, fill and fix (LDFF) is an effective treatment option for primary talar osteochondral defects

Evolving Trends in Return to Sport After Surgical Treatment of Osteochondral Lesions of the Talus: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Up To 2024

Osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLTs) pose significant treatment challenges in athletes due to the unique characteristics of the osteochondral unit and high functional demands. This systematic review and meta-analysis, covering literature from January 1990 to April 2024, compares surgical techniques for treating OLTs. Data on surgical details, return-to-sport (RTS) rates, clinical scores, and demographics were analyzed. The mean age was 34.5 years, body mass index 25.7 kg/m2, and lesion size 111.5 mm2, with a follow-up of 4.7 years. No significant differences were found in postoperative clinical scores among techniques. Bone marrow stimulation showed an RTS rate of 83.3% and RTS to pre-injury level of 52.7%.

The optimal adjunctive therapies for microfracture treatment of osteochondral lesions of the talus: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

This study systematically compares the efficacy of different adjunctive therapies in enhancing microfracture (MF) treatment for osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) through a network meta-analysis, aiming to identify the optimal adjunctive therapy for microfracture.

METHODS

A systematic search of PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane, and Scopus databases was conducted for relevant literature until October 1, 2024. Two researchers independently screened, extracted data, and assessed quality. The review process was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines.

RESULTS

A total of six randomized controlled trials were included, comprising 295 OLT patients and involving four adjunctive therapies: MF combined with platelet-rich plasma (MF_PRP), hyaluronic acid (MF_HA), collagen scaffold (MF_CS), and pulsed electromagnetic fields (MF_PEMF). The results of the network meta-analysis indicated that while HA is the most commonly used adjunctive therapy, PRP-assisted MF demonstrated the best improvement in AOFAS and VAS scores for OLT. The surface under the cumulative ranking curve (SUCRA) predictions also revealed that PRP has the greatest potential among the four adjunctive therapies, followed by HA. Conversely, MF_PEMF showed the least effectiveness in improving AOFAS and VAS scores. Additionally, only one study reported complications associated with MF_PEMF and MF, with no statistically significant differences between the two.

CONCLUSION

Among the MF adjunctive therapies validated by RCTs, HA is the most widely used; however, PRP-assisted MF provides the best outcomes for OLT patients, suggesting that its application should be emphasized in clinical practice.

PROSPERO

Registration No: CRD42024546984.

CLINICAL TRIAL DETAILS

Not applicable.

Fixation for osteochondral lesions of the talus leads to successful clinical outcomes in 9 out of 10 patients: A systematic review

IMPORTANCE

Osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) with an osteochondral fragment are amenable for fixation. Fixation aims to stabilize the osteochondral fragment while retaining the native cartilage. Though fixation for OLT is a promising treatment, no systematic overview of the literature on its efficacy and safety exists.

AIM

The primary aim of the present study is to assess the clinical success rate of fixation for OLT. The secondary outcomes concern the union rate and adverse events.

EVIDENCE REVIEW

A systematic literature search of PubMed, Embase (Ovid), and Cochrane Library was performed up to December 2023. The methodological quality of the included studies was evaluated using the Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies (MINORS) tool. The primary outcome the clinical success rate following fixation was pooled using a random effects model with 95% confidence interval (95%-CI). Success was predefined based on cut-off values for commonly used patient- or physician-reported outcome measures. Secondary outcomes concerned the union rate, complication rate, and revision rate.

FINDINGS

A total of 10 studies with 241 ankles were included at a mean follow-up of 40 months. 88% of lesions were chronic in nature, and 12% acute. In total, 9 non-comparative studies had a mean MINORS score of 10.3 (range: 6-14) out of 16 points and 1 comparative study had and a MINORS score of 20 of 24 points. The pooled clinical success rate was 91% [95%-CI: 81%-96%]. The pooled union rate was 91% [95%-CI: 87%-94%]. The addition of biological adjuncts in the form of autologous bone-grafting did not show a statistically superior success rate. The pooled complication and revision rate were 1% [95%-CI: 0-4] and 6% [95%-CI: 0%-4%], respectively.

CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE

Fixation for osteochondral lesions of the talus leads to successful clinical outcomes in 9 out of 10 patients. Moreover, fragment union is achieved in 9 out of 10 patients, with a low reported complication rate. These findings show that when a symptomatic OLT is fixable physicians should consider fixation.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

An Evidence-Based Update on Fixation Procedures for Acute and Chronic Osteochondral Lesions of the Talus

Osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) involve the subchondral bone and the overlying articular cartilage. Various surgical treatments for these lesions are available, such as bone marrow stimulation (BMS), autologous osteochondral grafting, and fixation of an osteochondral fragment. Treatment choice depends on the condition of the lesion, which includes lesion size, morphology, location, and the presence of cysts. Among the surgical procedures available to date, in situ fixation of the osteochondral fragment has the advantage of restoring the articular surface while preserving the native hyaline cartilage and its subchondral bone. Fixation for OLT has been shown to be clinically successful for the treatment of both acute and chronic lesions. Moreover, the indication for osteochondral fragment fixation is expanding as recent studies have found good clinical outcomes in relatively small-sized lesions. The present article describes the current evidence on fixation for acute and chronic OLT.

Fixation of Osteochondral Lesions of the Talus: Indications, Techniques, Outcomes, and Pearls from the Amsterdam Perspective

The treatment of osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) remains a topic of debate as no superior treatment has yet been identified. The current consensus is that it is crucial to incorporate lesion and patient characteristics into the treatment algorithm. One such lesion type is the OLT with a fragment, which may benefit from in situ fixation. Fixation preserves the native hyaline cartilage and offers a direct stabilization of the fragment with high-quality subchondral bone repair. This current concepts review describes the evidence-based clinical work-up, indications, surgical techniques, outcomes, and clinical pearls for fixation techniques of OLT from the Amsterdam perspective.

Open lift-drill-fill-fix for medial osteochondral lesions of the talus: surgical technique

OBJECTIVE

Osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) with a fragment on the talar dome that fail conservative treatment and need surgical treatment can benefit from in situ fixation of the OLT. Advantages of fixation include the preservation of native cartilage, a high quality subchondral bone repair, and the restoration of the joint congruency by immediate fragment stabilization. To improve the chance of successful stabilization, adequate lesion exposure is critical, especially in difficult to reach lesions located on the posteromedial talar dome. In this study we describe the open Lift, Drill, Fill, Fix (LDFF) technique for medial osteochondral lesions of the talus with an osteochondral fragment. As such, the lesion can be seen as an intra-articular non-union that requires debridement, bone-grafting, stabilization, and compression. The LDFF procedure combines these needs with access through a medial distal tibial osteotomy.

INDICATIONS

Symptomatic osteochondral lesion of the talus with a fragment (≥ 10 mm diameter and ≥ 3 mm thick as per computed tomography [CT] scan) situated on the medial talar dome which failed 3-6 months conservative treatment.

CONTRAINDICATIONS

Systemic disease, including active bacterial arthritis, hemophilic or other diffuse arthropathies, rheumatoid arthritis of the ankle joint, and malignancies. Neuropathic disease. End-stage ankle osteoarthritis or Kellgren and Lawrence score 3 or 4 [3]. Ipsilateral medial malleolus fracture less than 6 months prior. Relative contra-indication: posttraumatic stiffness with range of motion (ROM) < 5°. Children with open physis: do not perform an osteotomy as stabilization of the osteotomy may lead to early closure of the physis, potentially resulting in symptomatic varus angulation of the distal tibia. In these cases only arthrotomy can be considered.

SURGICAL TECHNIQUE

The OLT is approached through a medial distal tibial osteotomy, for which the screws are predrilled and the osteotomy is made with an oscillating saw and finished with a chisel in order to avoid thermal damage. Hereafter, the joint is inspected and the osteochondral fragment is identified. The cartilage is partially incised at the borders and the fragment is then lifted as a hood of a motor vehicle (lift). The subchondral bone is debrided and thereafter drilled to allow thorough bone marrow stimulation (drill) and filled with autologous cancellous bone graft from either the iliac crest or the distal tibia (fill). The fragment is then fixated (fix) in anatomical position, preferably with two screws to allow additional rotational stability. Finally, the osteotomy is reduced and fixated with two screws.

POSTOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT

Casting includes 5 weeks of short leg cast non-weightbearing and 5 weeks of short leg cast with weightbearing as tolerated. At 10-week follow-up, a CT scan is made to confirm fragment and osteotomy healing, and patients start personalized rehabilitation under the guidance of a physical therapist.

Arthroscopic Fixation Using Bioabsorbable Pins With Bone Grafting via a Medial Malleolus Approach to Treat Osteochondral Lesion of the Talus

Fixation of the osteochondral fragment has the advantage to restore the naturally congruent morphology of the talar dome with native hyaline cartilage in the treatment of the osteochondral lesion of the talus (OLT). Surgical treatment of medial talar osteochondral lesions is commonly done through a medial malleolar osteotomy. However, a medial malleolar osteotomy is an invasive procedure and gives negative impacts on clinical outcomes. Fixation for the posteromedial lesion of the OLT without the medial malleolar osteotomy may provide good clinical outcomes. We showed arthroscopic fixation for medial OLT without the medial malleolar osteotomy. Curettage and bone grafting between the fragment and its bed were performed, and then 2-mm bone tunnel in the medial malleolus was created. Bioabsorbable pins were inserted through the tunnel to fix the osteochondral fragment. Three cases (mean age 18.6 years) were treated using this technique for medial OLT and followed at 16 months (range, 12-24 months). The Japanese Society for Surgery of the Foot scale improved from 73.3 ± 1.2 points before surgery to 95.7 ± 7.5 points at the final follow-up. Bone union of the osteochondral fragment was confirmed on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Arthroscopic fixation for medial OLT is less invasive and yields good clinical outcomes.Levels of Evidence: Level V.

Return to sport after surgery for osteochondral lesions of the talar dome. Results of a multicenter prospective study on 58 patients

INTRODUCTION

Osteochondral lesions of the talar dome (OLTD) are most often found in patients for whom the return to sports activities is the main issue. Two types of surgery have been distinguished at present, bone marrow stimulation techniques and mosaicplasty techniques. The size of the lesion indicating the need for bone marrow stimulation as the required surgical procedure has recently been decreased (<1cm). The main objective of this study was therefore to evaluate the return to sport after OLTD surgery. Our hypothesis is that surgery of osteochondral lesions of the talar dome allows the resumption of sports activities in the majority of cases.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This multicenter prospective study was conducted across 10 French centers specializing in foot and ankle surgery. All patients aged 18 to 65 with symptomatic OLTD resistant to thorough medical treatment for at least 6 months, justifying surgery, were included from June 2018 to September 2019. In addition to the usual demographic data, the practice of sport and level (professional, competitive, leisure) were systematically investigated preoperatively. A common protocol for surgical management and postoperative follow-up had previously been established according to the arthrographic stage of the lesion. The most recent recommendations based on size, but also depth, were taken into account. The primary endpoint was return to sport.

RESULTS

A final functional evaluation with the AOFAS (American Orthopedic Foot & Ankle Society) score was performed at a minimum of 12 months. Of 58 sports patients, 70.6% returned to sport (41/58) with an average delay of 4.3 months. A high AOFAS functional score (p=0.02) and a stage 1 lesion (p=0.006) were the only preoperative criteria significantly associated with a return to sport. No other factor was predictive of a return to sport.

CONCLUSION

Our prospective study shows that 70.6% of sports patients returned to sport after OLTD surgery according to a surgical protocol and standardized follow-up.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

II.

Limited evidence in support of bone marrow aspirate concentrate as an additive to the bone marrow stimulation for osteochondral lesions of the talus: a systematic review and meta-analysis

PURPOSE

Bone marrow aspirate concentrate can be used as an additive to surgical treatment of osteochondral lesions of the talus. This systematic literature review aims to study the effect of the additional use of bone marrow aspirate concentrate on top of a surgical treatment for osteochondral lesions of the talus on clinical outcomes compared to surgical treatment alone.

METHODS

An online literature search was conducted using PubMed (Medline), Embase (Ovid), and the Cochrane library for all studies comparing a surgical intervention with bone marrow aspirate concentrate, with a surgical intervention without bone marrow aspirate concentrate. The methodological quality was rated according to the methodological index for non-randomised studies checklist. The primary outcome measure were clinical outcomes. Secondary outcome measures consisted of revision rate, complication rate, radiographic outcome measures and histological analyses. Subgroups were created based on type of surgical intervention used in the studies. If multiple articles were included in a subgroup, a linear random-effects model was used to compare the bone marrow aspirate concentrate-augmented group with the control group.

RESULTS

Out of 1006 studies found, eight studies with a total of 718 patients were included. The methodological quality, assessed according to the methodological index for non-randomised studies checklist, was weak. A significantly better functional outcome measures (p < 0.05) was found in the subgroup treated with bone marrow stimulation + bone marrow aspirate concentrate compared to the group treated with bone marrow stimulation alone, based on three non-blinded studies. No significant differences regarding clinical outcomes were found in the subgroups comparing matrix-induced autologous chondrocyte implantation with matrix-induced bone marrow aspirate concentrate, osteochondral autologous transplantation alone with osteochondral autologous transplantation + bone marrow aspirate concentrate and autologous matrix-induced chondrogenesis plus peripheral blood concentrate vs. matrix-associated stem cell transplantation bone marrow aspirate concentrate.

CONCLUSION

There is insufficient evidence to support a positive effect on clinical outcomes of bone marrow aspirate concentrate as an additive to surgical treatment of osteochondral lesions of the talus. However, based on the safety reports and initial results, sufficiently powered, patient- and researcher-blinded, prospective randomised controlled trials are justified and recommended. Until then, we advise not to implement a therapy (addition of bone marrow aspirate concentrate) without clinical evidence that justifies the additional costs involved.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Talar OsteoPeriostic Grafting from the Iliac Crest (TOPIC): Two-Year Prospective Results of a Novel Press-Fit Surgical Technique for Large, Complex Osteochondral Lesions of the Medial Talus

BACKGROUND

Press-fit Talar OsteoPeriostic grafting from the Iliac Crest (TOPIC) is a novel technique for the treatment of large osteochondral lesions of the talus. The purpose of the present study was to prospectively evaluate the 2-year clinical outcomes for patients with medial osteochondral lesions of the talus that were treated with the TOPIC procedure.

METHODS

Forty-three patients were prospectively assessed before and 24 months after the TOPIC procedure. All procedures were performed through a medial distal tibial osteotomy. Clinical assessment preoperatively and at 24 months of follow-up included determination of the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS) scores for pain during walking (primary outcome), at rest, during running, and during stair-climbing. The Foot and Ankle Outcome Score (FAOS) and the Mental Component Summary (MCS) score and Physical Component Summary (PCS) score of the Short Form-36 (SF-36) were also assessed. A computed tomography (CT) scan was performed 12 weeks postoperatively to assess union of the distal tibial osteotomy site and at 1 and 2 years postoperatively to assess consolidation of the graft as well as cyst development in the graft.

RESULTS

All enrolled patients were available for follow-up. The median NRS score for pain during walking improved from 7 points preoperatively to 2 points at 2 years postoperatively (p < 0.001). All other NRS scores for pain improved significantly. All FAOS subscale scores improved significantly, including those for pain (from 53 to 75), symptoms (from 50 to 61), activities of daily living (from 68 to 88), sports (from 30 to 55), and quality of life (from 19 to 38). The SF-36 PCS score improved from 43 to 48 (p < 0.001), and the MCS score changed from 28 to 26 (p > 0.05). There was a 100% rate of union of the osteotomy site at the distal tibia and 100% of the grafts showed consolidation at 1 and 2 years postoperatively.

CONCLUSIONS

The TOPIC procedure for large osteochondral lesions of the medial talar dome is an effective technique that resulted in significant improvement exceeding the minimal clinically important difference in pain scores (primary outcome) as well as in other outcomes, with 100% consolidation of the grafts.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic Level IV . See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

The Frequency and Severity of Complications in Surgical Treatment of Osteochondral Lesions of the Talus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 6,962 Lesions

OBJECTIVE

The primary aim was to determine and compare the complication rate of different surgical treatment options for osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLTs). The secondary aim was to analyze and compare the severity and types of complications.

DESIGN

A literature search was performed in MEDLINE (PubMed), EMBASE (Ovid), and the Cochrane Library. Methodological quality was assessed using the Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies (MINORS). Primary outcome was the complication rate per surgical treatment option. Secondary outcomes included the severity (using the Modified Clavien-Dindo-Sink Complication Classification System for Orthopedic Surgery) and types of complications. The primary outcome, the severity, and the sub-analyses were analyzed using a random effects model. A moderator test for subgroup-analysis was used to determine differences. The types of complications were presented as rates.

RESULTS

In all, 178 articles from the literature search were included for analysis, comprising 6,962 OLTs with a pooled mean age of 35.5 years and follow-up of 46.3 months. Methodological quality was fair. The overall complication rate was 5% (4%-6%; treatment group effect, P = 0.0015). Analysis resulted in rates from 3% (2%-4%) for matrix-assisted bone marrow stimulation to 15% (5%-35%) for metal implants. Nerve injury was the most observed complication.

CONCLUSIONS

In 1 out of 20 patients treated surgically for an OLT, a complication occurs. Metal implants have a significantly higher complication rate compared with other treatment modalities. No life-threatening complications were reported.

Talar OsteoPeriostic grafting from the Iliac Crest (TOPIC) for lateral osteochondral lesions of the talus: operative technique

OBJECTIVE

To provide a natural scaffold, good quality cells, and growth factors to facilitate replacement of the complete osteochondral unit with matching talar curvature for large osteochondral lesions of the lateral talar dome.

INDICATIONS

Symptomatic primary and non-primary lateral osteochondral lesions of the talus not responding to conservative treatment. The anterior-posterior or medial-lateral diameter should exceed 10 mm on computed tomography (CT) for primary lesions; for secondary lesions, there are no size limitations.

CONTRAINDICATIONS

Tibiotalar osteoarthritis grade III, malignancy, active infectious ankle joint pathology, and hemophilic or other diffuse arthropathy.

SURGICAL TECHNIQUE

Anterolateral arthrotomy is performed after which the Anterior TaloFibular Ligament (ATFL) is disinserted from the fibula. Additional exposure is achieved by placing a Hintermann distractor subluxating the talus ventrally. Thereafter, the osteochondral lesion is excised in toto from the talar dome. The recipient site is micro-drilled in order to disrupt subchondral bone vessels. Thereafter, the autograft is harvested from the ipsilateral iliac crest with an oscillating saw, after which the graft is adjusted to an exactly fitting shape to match the extracted lateral osteochondral defect and the talar morphology as well as curvature. The graft is implanted with a press-fit technique after which the ATFL is re-inserted followed by potential augmentation with an InternalBrace™ (Arthrex, Naples, FL, USA).

POSTOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT

Non-weightbearing cast for 6 weeks, followed by another 6 weeks with a walking boot. After 12 weeks, a computed tomography (CT) scan is performed to assess consolidation of the inserted autograft. The patient is referred to a physiotherapist.

Sustained clinical success at 7-year follow-up after arthroscopic Lift-Drill-Fill-Fix (LDFF) of primary osteochondral lesions of the talus

PURPOSE

To describe the long-term clinical results of arthroscopic fragment fixation for chronic primary osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT), using the Lift-Drill-Fill-Fix (LDFF) technique.

METHODS

Eighteen patients (20 ankles) underwent fixation for a primary OLT with an osteochondral fragment using arthroscopic LDFF and were evaluated at a minimum of 5-year follow-up. Pre- and postoperative clinical assessment was prospectively performed by measuring the Numeric Rating Scale (NRS) of pain at rest, during walking and when running. Additionally, the change in Foot and Ankle Outcome Score (FAOS) and the procedure survival (i.e., no reoperation for the OLT) at final follow-up was assessed.

RESULTS

At a mean follow-up of 7 years, the median NRS during walking significantly improved from 7 (IQR 5-8) pre-operatively to 0 (IQR 0-1.5) at final follow-up (p =  < 0.001). This result was sustained from 1-year follow-up to final follow-up. The NRS during running significantly improved from 8 (IQR 6-10) to 2 (IQR 0-4.5) (p < 0.001) and the NRS in rest from 2.5 (IQR 1-3) to 0 (IQR 0-0) (p =  < 0.001). The median FAOS at final follow-up was 94 out of 100 for pain, 71 for other symptoms, 99 for activities of daily living, 80 for sport and 56 for quality of life. The FOAS remained significantly improved post-operatively on all subscales, except for the symptoms subscale. The procedure survival rate is 87% at final follow-up.

CONCLUSION

Arthroscopic LDFF for fixable chronic primary OLTs results in excellent pain reduction and improved patient-reported outcomes, with sustained results at long-term follow-up. These results indicate that surgeons may consider arthroscopic LDFF as treatment of choice for fragmentous OLT.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, prospective case series.

Vascularized osteochondral free flaps from the femoral trochlea as versatile procedure for reconstruction of osteochondral lesions of the talus

BACKGROUND

Osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) are defects affecting the articular cartilage as well as the subchondral bone, on the lateral shoulder possibly associated with trauma. This study presents the results of reconstructing OLT using vascularized osteochondral flaps from the femoral trochlea.

METHODS

We treated 19 patients with osteochondral talar shoulder defects, using osteochondral flaps from the medial (MFT) or lateral (LFT) femoral trochlea. Functional outcome was evaluated by clinical investigation, visual analogue scale (VAS, 0-10), American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society-Ankle and Hindfoot Scale (AOFAS, 0-100) and The Foot and Ankle Disability Index (FADI, 0-104). Radiographic postoperative follow-up was done by anterior-posterior and lateral X-rays and union of the transferred osteochondral flaps was documented by CT scans.

RESULTS

The osteochondral flaps fused in all of the 19 cases. After a median follow-up of 45.5 months, the patients showed an average FADI of 94.9 and AOFAS-Ankle and Hindfoot Scale of 91.2. All of them were walking free and normal. Subjective median satisfaction was 1.3 in a scale from 1 to 5.

CONCLUSION

Vascularized transfer of osteochondral flaps from the femoral trochlea is a reliable treatment option for symptomatic OLT of the medial and lateral talar edge.

LEVEL OF CLINICAL EVIDENCE

Therapeutic IV.

Second-look arthroscopic and magnetic resonance analysis after internal fixation of osteochondral lesions of the talus

The purpose of this study was to evaluate cartilage quality after internal fixation of osteochondral lesion of the talus (OLT) using second-look arthroscopies and MRIs. Thirty-four patients underwent internal fixation of OLTs involving large bone fragments. Twenty-one of these patients underwent second-look arthroscopies and 23 patients underwent MRIs postoperatively. The arthroscopic findings were assessed using the International Cartilage Repair Society (ICRS) grading system, and the MRI findings were evaluated using the Magnetic Resonance Observation of Cartilage Repair Tissue (MOCART) score. Five of the patients who underwent second-look arthroscopies showed normal cartilage, 12 showed nearly normal cartilage, 3 showed abnormal cartilage, and 1 showed severely abnormal cartilage, according to the overall ICRS repair grades. All the patients who achieved bone fragment union showed normal, or nearly normal cartilage upon second-look arthroscopy. The ICRS and MOCART scores were significantly higher for the patients with bone fragment union compared to those with nonunion (ICRS scores: 10.3 ± 1.5 vs. 6.0 ± 2.0, p < 0.001, MOCART score: 88.3 ± 10.0 vs. 39.0 ± 20.4, p < 0.001). Low signal intensities of the bone fragments on preoperative T1-weighted MRIs were not associated with nonunion (Fisher's exact test, p = 0.55), and the signal intensities increased postoperatively to levels similar to the underlying talus when bone union was achieved. Second-look arthroscopy and MRI showed normal, or nearly normal, cartilage after internal fixation of OLTs when bone union was achieved. The nonunion of bone fragments resulted in inferior cartilage quality.

Location Distribution of 2,087 Osteochondral Lesions of the Talus

OBJECTIVE

The primary aim of this study was to evaluate the exact location distribution in patients with osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLTs) using a 9-grid scheme. The secondary aim is to match lesion location to lesion size, arthroscopic or open operation, and trauma occurrence.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed in the databases PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane. Search terms consisted of "talus" and "osteochondral lesion." Two independent reviewers evaluated search results and conducted the quality assessment using the Methodological Index for Non-Randomized Studies (MINORS). Primary outcome measure was OLT location in the 9 zone-grid. Secondary outcome measures were OLT size in 9-zones, preoperative radiological modality use, demographic lesion size variables as well as open or arthroscopic treatment.

RESULTS

Fifty-one articles with 2,087 OLTs were included. Heterogeneity concerning methodological nature was observed and methodological quality was low. The posteromedial (28%) and centromedial (31%) zones combined as one location was the location with the highest incidence of OLTs with a rate of 59%. Individual OLT size was reported for only 153 lesions (7%). Preoperative combination of X-ray and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and/or computed tomography (CT) was reported in 20 studies (43%). Trauma was reported in 78% of patients. Furthermore, 67% was treated arthroscopically and 76% received primary OLT treatment.

CONCLUSION

The majority of OLTs are located in the posteromedial and centromedial zone, while the largest OLTs were reported in the centrocentral zone. Further research is required to identify the prognostic impact of location occurrence on the outcomes following OLT treatment.

Osteochondral lesion of the talus: What are we talking about?

INTRODUCTION

The analysis of osteochondral lesions of talus (OLT) is currently mostly descriptive, not permitting an understanding of the different nosological frameworks of these lesions. Better knowledge of the characteristics of patients with OLT should make it possible to optimize the surgical indications and anticipate the associated lesions, which should not be overlooked. The main objective of this study was, therefore, to assess the characteristics of patients with OLT, and to analyze the lesions encountered.

HYPOTHESIS

OLTs correspond to variable entities responding to specific treatments.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

This was a prospective multicenter descriptive study including all patients operated on for an OLT, aged between 15 and 65 years, across 10 French specialist centers. The demographic, clinical and radiological data of the patients were analyzed.

RESULTS

OLTs predominantly affect males and patients in their thirties. Two types of OLT should be distinguished: a lateral OLT; smaller and more superficial, most often presenting with painful instability, in the context of trauma, and a medial OLT; more frequent, wider and deeper.

DISCUSSION

Two nosological frameworks exist for OLTs, and correspond to precise surgical indications: medial lesions of more than 10mm² and more than 5mm in depth, with isolated anteromedial pain and significant functional impairment, most often idiopathic, generally requiring treatment by osteochondral autografts. Lateral lesions less than 5mm in depth and less than 10mm², often superficial, following trauma or ankle laxity, associated with lateral ligament damage in one-third of cases, and a clinical presentation associated to instability and pain, requiring treatment most often by microfracture with associated ligament repair.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

III.

Osteochondral Lesions of the Talus: A Review on Talus Osteochondral Injuries, Including Osteochondritis Dissecans

This is a review on talus osteochondritis dissecans and talus osteochondral lesions. A majority of the osteochondral lesions are associated with trauma while the cause of pure osteochondritis dissecans is still much discussed with a possible cause being repetitive microtraumas associated with vascular disturbances causing subchondral bone necrosis and disability. Symptomatic nondisplaced osteochondral lesions can often be treated conservatively in children and adolescents while such treatment is less successful in adults. Surgical treatment is indicated when there is an unstable cartilage fragment. There are a large number of different operative technique options with no number one technique to be recommended. Most techniques have been presented in level II to IV studies with a low number of patients with short follow ups and few randomized comparisons exist. The actual situation in treating osteochondral lesions in the ankle is presented and discussed.

Bone marrow stimulation for talar osteochondral lesions at long-term follow-up shows a high sports participation though a decrease in clinical outcomes over time

PURPOSE

Although bone marrow stimulation (BMS) as a treatment for osteochondral lesions of the talus (OCLT) shows high rates of sport resumption at short-term follow-up, it is unclear whether the sports activity is still possible at longer follow-up. The purpose of this study was, therefore, to evaluate sports activity after arthroscopic BMS at long-term follow-up.

METHODS

Sixty patients included in a previously published randomized-controlled trial were analyzed in the present study. All patients had undergone arthroscopic debridement and BMS for OCLT. Return to sports, level, and type were assessed in the first year post-operative and at final follow-up. Secondary outcome measures were assessed by standardized questionnaires with use of numeric rating scales for pain and satisfaction and the Foot and Ankle Outcome Score (FAOS).

RESULTS

The mean follow-up was 6.4 years (SD ± 1.1 years). The mean level of activity measured with the AAS was 6.2 pre-injury and 3.4 post-injury. It increased to 5.2 at 1 year after surgery and was 5.8 at final follow-up. At final follow-up, 54 patients (90%) participated in 16 different sports. Thirty-three patients (53%) indicated they returned to play sport at their pre-injury level. Twenty patients (33%) were not able to obtain their pre-injury level of sport because of ankle problems and eight other patients (13%) because of other reasons. Mean NRS for pain during rest was 2.7 pre-operative, 1.1 at 1 year, and 1.0 at final follow-up. Mean NRS during activity changed from 7.9 to 3.7 to 4.4, respectively. The FAOS scores improved at 1 year follow-up, but all subscores significantly decreased at final follow-up.

CONCLUSION

At long-term follow-up (mean 6.4 years) after BMS for OCLT, 90% of patients still participate in sports activities, of whom 53% at pre-injury level. The AAS of the patients participating in sports remains similar pre-injury and post-operatively at final follow-up. A decrease over time in clinical outcomes was, however, seen when the follow-up scores at 1 year post-operatively were compared with the final follow-up.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II.

Talar OsteoPeriostic grafting from the Iliac Crest (TOPIC) for large medial talar osteochondral defects : Operative technique

OBJECTIVE

Provision of a natural scaffold, good quality cells, and growth factors in order to facilitate the replacement of the complete osteochondral unit with matching talar curvature for large medial primary and secondary osteochondral defects of the talus.

INDICATIONS

Symptomatic primary and secondary medial osteochondral defects of the talus not responding to conservative treatment; anterior-posterior or medial-lateral diameter >10 mm on computed tomography (CT); closed distal tibial physis in young patients.

CONTRAINDICATIONS

Tibiotalar osteoarthritis grade III; multiple osteochondral defects on the medial, central, and lateral talar dome; malignancy; active infectious ankle joint pathology.

SURGICAL TECHNIQUE

A medial distal tibial osteotomy is performed, after which the osteochondral defect is excised in toto from the talar dome. The recipient site is microdrilled in order to disrupt subchondral bone vessels. Then, the autograft is harvested from the ipsilateral iliac crest with an oscillating saw, after which the graft is adjusted to an exact fitting shape to match the extracted osteochondral defect and the talar morphology as well as curvature. The graft is implanted with a press-fit technique after which the osteotomy is reduced with two 3.5 mm lag screws and the incision layers are closed. In cases of a large osteotomy, an additional third tubular buttress plate is added, or a third screw at the apex of the osteotomy.

POSTOPERATIVE MANAGEMENT

Non-weight bearing cast for 6 weeks, followed by another 6 weeks with a walking boot. After 12 weeks, a CT scan is performed to assess consolidation of the osteotomy and the inserted autograft. The patient is referred to a physiotherapist.

RESULTS

Ten cases underwent the TOPIC procedure, and at 1 year follow-up all clinical scores improved. Radiological outcomes showed consolidation of all osteotomies and all inserted grafts showed consolidation. Complications included one spina iliaca anterior avulsion and one hypaesthesia of the saphenous nerve; in two patients the fixation screws of the medial malleolar osteotomy were removed.

[Osteochondral lesions of the talus : Individualized approach based on established and innovative reconstruction techniques]

Osteochondral lesions (OCL) of the talus are defined as chondral damage with subchondral involvement. The traumatic etiology is important; in particular, sprains and fractures can lead to lesions of the articular surface and the subchondral plate. As a result, unstable lesions and subchondral cysts can trigger substantial persistent pain and functional impairments. A primary conservative treatment can be considered and is especially recommended in children and adolescents; however, return to previous sports activity and level is often not achieved. The principles of reconstructive surgical management include internal fixation of osteochondral fragments, bone marrow stimulation, autologous membrane-augmented chondrogenesis ± bone grafting, osteochondral transfer, retrograde techniques ± bone grafting, (matrix-associated) autologous chondrocyte implantation and autologous osteoperiosteal graft from the iliac crest. Additional surgical procedures for ankle stabilization and deformity correction should be considered if necessary.

Osteochondral Lesions of the Talus: An Individualized Treatment Paradigm from the Amsterdam Perspective

Osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLTs) are characterized by damage to the articular cartilage of the talus and its underlying subchondral bone. Up to 75% of OLTs are caused by trauma, such as an ankle sprain or fracture. Physical examination and imaging are crucial for diagnosis and characterization of an OLT. No superior treatment for OLTs exists. It is paramount that an evidence-based personalized treatment approach is applied to patients with OLTs because lesion and patient characteristics guide treatment. This current concepts review covers clinical and preclinical evidence on OLT etiology, presentation, diagnosis, and treatment, all based on the Amsterdam perspective.

Internal Fixation of Osteochondral Lesion of the Talus Involving a Large Bone Fragment

BACKGROUND

Internal fixation of an osteochondral lesion of the talus (OLT) can restore the congruency of the talus and maintain the subchondral bone and innate hyaline cartilage. However, OLT that is indicated for fixation is rarely encountered; hence, not many studies report on the results after the procedure.

PURPOSE

To evaluate the clinical and radiological outcomes after internal fixation of chronic OLT involving a large bone fragment of at least 10 mm in diameter and 3 mm in depth on computed tomography (CT).

STUDY DESIGN

Case series; Level of evidence, 4.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the data of 26 patients with OLT treated with internal fixation between August 2014 and April 2018. Of the patients, 15 were male and 11 were female, with a mean age of 16 years (range, 11-29 years). The primary radiological outcome measurement was bone union assessed on the 6-month postoperative CT scan. Clinical outcomes were assessed at a mean of 27.7 months postoperatively.

RESULTS

Twenty patients (77%) achieved bone union on postoperative CT scan. The mean 100-mm visual analog scale (VAS) improved from 30.5 ± 8.5 preoperatively to 13.4 ± 9.7 postoperatively (P < .001). The mean Foot Function Index (FFI) improved from 30.5 ± 6.7 preoperatively to 13.7 ± 9.8 postoperatively (P < .001). A malleolar osteotomy was not necessary to approach the lesion in 88% of patients. A bone fragment with an irregular margin and low density on the preoperative CT scan was significantly associated with nonunion (odds ratio: 7.67, 95% confidence interval: 2.67 to 22.02, P = .008). The difference in clinical outcomes between patients with skeletally immature ankles and those with skeletally mature ankles was not statistically significant. Patient age did not correlate with postoperative 100-mm VAS (Pearson correlation coefficient, r = -0.07, P = 0.72) or the postoperative FFI (Pearson correlation coefficient, r = -0.05, P = .80).

CONCLUSION

Internal fixation of an OLT involving a large bone fragment resulted in satisfactory clinical and radiologic outcomes. We found that patients with skeletally immature and mature ankles attained healing at comparable rates after the internal fixation of OLT.