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Singh P, Choi JY, Mamoun CB. DAB-APT: a Fluorescence-Based Assay for Determining Aminopropyl Transferase Activity and Inhibition. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.09.588734. [PMID: 38645036 PMCID: PMC11030440 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.09.588734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
Polyamines are polycationic molecules that are crucial in a wide array of cellular functions. Their biosynthesis is mediated by aminopropyl transferases (APTs), promising targets in antimicrobial, antineoplastic and antineurodegenerative therapies. A major limitation, however, is the lack of high-throughput assays to measure their activity. We developed the first fluorescence-based assay, DAB-APT, for measurement of APT activity using 1,2-diacetyl benzene, which forms fluorescent conjugates with putrescine, spermidine and spermine with fluorescence intensity increasing with increasing carbon chain length. The assay has been validated using APT enzymes from S. cerevisiae and P. falciparum and is suitable for high-throughput screening of large chemical libraries. Given the importance of APTs in infectious diseases, cancer and neurobiology, our DAB-APT assay has broad applications, holding promise for advancing research and drug discovery efforts.
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Wang W, Paschalidis K, Feng JC, Song J, Liu JH. Polyamine Catabolism in Plants: A Universal Process With Diverse Functions. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:561. [PMID: 31134113 PMCID: PMC6513885 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Polyamine (PA) catabolic processes are performed by copper-containing amine oxidases (CuAOs) and flavin-containing PA oxidases (PAOs). So far, several CuAOs and PAOs have been identified in many plant species. These enzymes exhibit different subcellular localization, substrate specificity, and functional diversity. Since PAs are involved in numerous physiological processes, considerable efforts have been made to explore the functions of plant CuAOs and PAOs during the recent decades. The stress signal transduction pathways usually lead to increase of the intracellular PA levels, which are apoplastically secreted and oxidized by CuAOs and PAOs, with parallel production of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Depending on the levels of the generated H2O2, high or low, respectively, either programmed cell death (PCD) occurs or H2O2 is efficiently scavenged by enzymatic/nonenzymatic antioxidant factors that help plants coping with abiotic stress, recruiting different defense mechanisms, as compared to biotic stress. Amine and PA oxidases act further as PA back-converters in peroxisomes, also generating H2O2, possibly by activating Ca2+ permeable channels. Here, the new research data are discussed on the interconnection of PA catabolism with the derived H2O2, together with their signaling roles in developmental processes, such as fruit ripening, senescence, and biotic/abiotic stress reactions, in an effort to elucidate the mechanisms involved in crop adaptation/survival to adverse environmental conditions and to pathogenic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Wang
- College of Horticulture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Konstantinos Paschalidis
- Department of Agriculture, School of Agricultural Sciences, Hellenic Mediterranean University, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Jian-Can Feng
- College of Horticulture, Henan Agricultural University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Jie Song
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ji-Hong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
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Rocha RO, Wilson RA. Essential, deadly, enigmatic: Polyamine metabolism and roles in fungal cells. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Estiarte N, Crespo-Sempere A, Marín S, Sanchis V, Ramos A. Exploring polyamine metabolism of Alternaria alternata to target new substances to control the fungal infection. Food Microbiol 2017; 65:193-204. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2017.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Crespo-Sempere A, Estiarte N, Marín S, Sanchis V, Ramos AJ. Targeting Fusarium graminearum control via polyamine enzyme inhibitors and polyamine analogs. Food Microbiol 2015; 49:95-103. [PMID: 25846919 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2015.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Revised: 01/11/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Fusarium graminearum not only reduces yield and seed quality but also constitutes a risk to public or animal health owing to its ability to contaminate grains with mycotoxins. Resistance problems are emerging and control strategies based on new targets are needed. Polyamines have a key role in growth, development and differentiation. In this work, the possibility of using polyamine metabolism as a target to control F. graminearum has been assessed. It was found that putrescine induces mycotoxin production, correlating with an over expression of TRI5 and TRI6 genes. In addition, a homolog of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae TPO4 involved in putrescine excretion was up-regulated as putrescine concentration increased while DUR3 and SAM3 homologues, involved in putrescine uptake, were down-regulated. When 2.5 mM D, l-α-difluoromethylornithine (DFMO) was added to the medium, DON production decreased from 3.2 to 0.06 ng/mm(2) of colony and growth was lowered by up to 70 per cent. However, exogenous putrescine could overcome DFMO effects. Five polyamine transport inhibitors were also tested against F. graminearum. AMXT-1505 was able to completely inhibit in vitro growth and DON production. Additionally, AMXT-1505 blocked F. graminearum growth in inoculated wheat spikes reducing DON mycotoxin contamination from 76.87 μg/g to 0.62 μg/g.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Crespo-Sempere
- Applied Mycology Unit, Food Technology Department, University of Lleida, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain.
| | - N Estiarte
- Applied Mycology Unit, Food Technology Department, University of Lleida, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
| | - S Marín
- Applied Mycology Unit, Food Technology Department, University of Lleida, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
| | - V Sanchis
- Applied Mycology Unit, Food Technology Department, University of Lleida, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
| | - A J Ramos
- Applied Mycology Unit, Food Technology Department, University of Lleida, UTPV-XaRTA, Agrotecnio Center, Av. Rovira Roure 191, 25198 Lleida, Spain
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Polyamine metabolism in fungi with emphasis on phytopathogenic species. JOURNAL OF AMINO ACIDS 2012; 2012:837932. [PMID: 22957208 PMCID: PMC3432380 DOI: 10.1155/2012/837932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2012] [Accepted: 06/23/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Polyamines are essential metabolites present in all living organisms, and this subject has attracted the attention of researchers worldwide interested in defining their mode of action in the variable cell functions in which they are involved, from growth to development and differentiation. Although the mechanism of polyamine synthesis is almost universal, different biological groups show interesting differences in this aspect that require to be further analyzed. For these studies, fungi represent interesting models because of their characteristics and facility of analysis. During the last decades fungi have contributed to the understanding of polyamine metabolism. The use of specific inhibitors and the isolation of mutants have allowed the manipulation of the pathway providing information on its regulation. During host-fungus interaction polyamine metabolism suffers striking changes in response to infection, which requires examination. Additionally the role of polyamine transporter is getting importance because of its role in polyamine regulation. In this paper we analyze the metabolism of polyamines in fungi, and the difference of this process with other biological groups. Of particular importance is the difference of polyamine biosynthesis between fungi and plants, which makes this process an attractive target for the control of phytopathogenic fungi.
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Maiale SJ, Marina M, Sánchez DH, Pieckenstain FL, Ruiz OA. In vitro and in vivo inhibition of plant polyamine oxidase activity by polyamine analogues. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2008; 69:2552-8. [PMID: 18783804 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2008.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2007] [Revised: 05/17/2008] [Accepted: 07/16/2008] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Polyamine oxidase from Avena sativa L. cv. Cristal seedlings was purified to homogeneity using a simple four-step purification protocol including an infiltration washing technique. The enzyme had a high affinity for spermidine and spermine (K(m) approximately 5.5 and 1.2 microM, respectively), and also oxidized norspermidine (K(m) approximately 64.0 microM). Natural and synthetic diamines, cyclohexylamine, the putrescine analogue 1-aminooxy-3-aminopropane, and several polyamine analogues had inhibitory effects on polyamine oxidase activity and none were substrates. No inhibitory effect was observed on spermidine oxidation when the reaction product 1,3-diaminopropane was added. By contrast, 1-aminooxy-3-aminopropane showed mixed inhibition kinetics and a K(i) value of 0.113 mM. In addition, in vitro enzymatic activity assays showed that the oligoamine [3,8,13,18,23,28,33,38,43,48-deca-aza-(trans-25)-pentacontene], the tetramine 1,14-bis-[ethylamino]-5,10-diazatetradecane, and the pentamine 1,19-bis-[ethylamino]-5,10,15-triazanonadecane, displayed potent competitive inhibitory activities against polyamine oxidase with K(i) values of 5.8, 110.0 and 7.6 nM, respectively, where cyclohexylamine was a weak competitive inhibitor with a K(i) value of 0.5 mM. These analogues did not inhibit mycelial growth of the fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (Lib.) De Bary and the bacterium Pseudomonas viridiflava (Burkholder) Dowson in vitro. On the contrary, with concentrations similar to those used for polyamine analogues, guazatine (a well-known fungicide and at the same time, a polyamine oxidase inhibitor) inhibited ( approximately 85%) S. sclerotiorum mycelial growth on Czapek-Dox medium. Finally, the analogue 1,19-bis-ethylamino-5,10,15-triazanonadecane inhibited polyamine oxidase activity observed in segments of maize leaves in vivo. The results obtained provide insights into research on the influence of polyamine oxidase activity on plant biotic and abiotic stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santiago J Maiale
- IIB-INTECH, Camino de Circunvalación de la Laguna km 6, Casilla de Correo 164, Provincia de Buenos Aires, B7130IWA Chascomús, Argentina
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Marina M, Maiale SJ, Rossi FR, Romero MF, Rivas EI, Gárriz A, Ruiz OA, Pieckenstain FL. Apoplastic polyamine oxidation plays different roles in local responses of tobacco to infection by the necrotrophic fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and the biotrophic bacterium Pseudomonas viridiflava. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2008; 147:2164-78. [PMID: 18583531 PMCID: PMC2492638 DOI: 10.1104/pp.108.122614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2008] [Accepted: 06/15/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The role of polyamine (PA) metabolism in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) defense against pathogens with contrasting pathogenic strategies was evaluated. Infection by the necrotrophic fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum resulted in increased arginine decarboxylase expression and activity in host tissues, as well as putrescine and spermine accumulation in leaf apoplast. Enhancement of leaf PA levels, either by using transgenic plants or infiltration with exogenous PAs, led to increased necrosis due to infection by S. sclerotiorum. Specific inhibition of diamine and PA oxidases attenuated the PA-induced enhancement of leaf necrosis during fungal infection. When tobacco responses to infection by the biotrophic bacterium Pseudomonas viridiflava were investigated, an increase of apoplastic spermine levels was detected. Enhancement of host PA levels by the above-described experimental approaches strongly decreased in planta bacterial growth, an effect that was blocked by a PA oxidase inhibitor. It can be concluded that accumulation and further oxidation of free PAs in the leaf apoplast of tobacco plants occurs in a similar, although not identical way during tobacco defense against infection by microorganisms with contrasting pathogenesis strategies. This response affects the pathogen's ability to colonize host tissues and results are detrimental for plant defense against necrotrophic pathogens that feed on necrotic tissue; on the contrary, this response plays a beneficial role in defense against biotrophic pathogens that depend on living tissue for successful host colonization. Thus, apoplastic PAs play important roles in plant-pathogen interactions, and modulation of host PA levels, particularly in the leaf apoplast, may lead to significant changes in host susceptibility to different kinds of pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Marina
- Universidad Nacional de General San Martín-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, B7130IWA Chascomus, Argentina
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Polyamine metabolism during sclerotial development of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 112:414-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mycres.2007.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2007] [Revised: 09/12/2007] [Accepted: 10/31/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Vicedo B, de la O Leyva M, Flors V, Finiti I, Del Amo G, Walters D, Real MD, García-Agustín P, González-Bosch C. Control of the phytopathogen Botrytis cinerea using adipic acid monoethyl ester. Arch Microbiol 2005; 184:316-26. [PMID: 16261314 DOI: 10.1007/s00203-005-0048-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2005] [Revised: 09/09/2005] [Accepted: 09/30/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The in vitro and in vivo antifungal activity of adipic acid monoethyl ester (AAME) on the necrotrophic pathogen Botrytis cinerea has been studied. This chemical effectively controlled this important phytopathogen, inhibited spore germination and mycelium development at non-phytotoxic concentrations. The effectiveness of AAME treatment is concentration-dependent and influenced by pH. Spore germination in the presence of AAME is stopped at a very early stage, preventing germ tube development. In addition, cytological changes such as retraction of the conidial cytoplasm in the fungus are observed. AAME was also found to act on membrane integrity, affecting permeability without exhibiting lytic activity, as described previously for other antifungal compounds. Polyamine content in the mycelium of B. cinerea was also affected in response to AAME treatment, resulting in putrescine reduction and spermine accumulation similar to a number of antifungal agents. Microscopic observation of treated conidia after inoculation on tomato leaves suggested that inhibited spores are not able to attach to and penetrate the leaf. Finally, AAME completely suppressed the grey mould disease of tomato fruits under controlled inoculation conditions, providing evidence for its efficacy in a biological context and for the potential use of this chemical as an alternative fungicide treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Begonya Vicedo
- Fisiología Vegetal, Departamento de Ciencias Experimentales, Campus Riu Sec E.S.T.C.E, Universitat Jaume I, 12071 Castellón, Spain
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Qutob SS, Proulx D, Mesak FM, Ng CE. Effects ofN1,N13-Diethylnorspermine (DENSPM) and X-Radiation Treatment on Human Colorectal Tumor Clones with Varying X-Radiation and Drug Responses. Radiat Res 2005; 163:357-63. [PMID: 15799689 DOI: 10.1667/0033-7587(2005)163[0357:eonnda]2.0.co;2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
This study was designed to examine the effects of treatment with N1, N13-diethylnorspermine (DENSPM), a spermine analog, and X radiation on survival and on the polyamine and spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase (SSAT) levels in closely related human colorectal tumor (HCT116) clones exhibiting a wide range of X-radiation and drug responses. After treatment with DENSPM and X radiation, clonogenic cell survival was measured. SSAT protein levels were measured by Western blot analysis and SSAT enzymatic activities by the conversion of [1-14C]acetyl-CoA into [1-14C]acetylspermidine. Polyamine [i.e. putrescine (PUT), spermine (SPM) and spermidine (SPD)] levels were measured with high-performance liquid chromatography. DENSPM enhanced the efficacy of radiation treatment in HCT116, HCT116-Clone2 (a radiation-resistant clone) and HCT116-Clone10 (a clone with similar X-radiation response as the parental HCT116 cells) but not in HCT116-CloneK (an X-radiation-sensitive but relatively drug-resistant clone). Treatment with DENSPM without X radiation caused the most significant increase in SSAT activity (approximately 22-fold) and an almost complete depletion of SPD levels in HCT116-CloneK. Our results suggest that (a) the lack of sensitization of X-radiation treatment by DENSPM in HCT116-CloneK was likely due to the prior depletion of SPD levels by DENSPM alone, (b) natural polyamine contents and/or inducibility of SSAT may be important factors influencing cellular response to combined X-radiation and DENSPM treatments, and (c) more importantly, there may be a potentially novel role for combining polyamine analogs such as DENSPM with X rays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sami S Qutob
- Centre for Cancer Therapeutics, Ottawa Regional Cancer Centre, Ottawa, Ontario, K1H 1C4, Canada
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Gárriz A, Dalmasso MC, Marina M, Rivas EI, Ruiz OA, Pieckenstain FL. Polyamine metabolism during the germination of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum ascospores and its relation with host infection. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2004; 161:847-854. [PMID: 33873730 DOI: 10.1046/j.1469-8137.2003.00983.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
• Polyamine biosynthesis inhibitors were used to study polyamine metabolism during the germination of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum ascospores, and to evaluate the potential of polyamine biosynthesis inhibition for the control of ascospore-borne diseases in plants. • The effects of inhibitors on ascospore germination, free polyamine levels, ornithine decarboxylase activity and development of disease symptoms on tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) leaf discs inoculated with ascospores were determined. • α-Difluoromethylornithine inhibited ornithine decarboxylase and decreased free spermidine levels, but had no effect on ascospore germination. Both, the spermidine synthase inhibitor cyclohexylamine and the S-adenosyl-methionine decarboxylase inhibitor methylglyoxal bis-[guanyl hydrazone] decreased free spermidine levels, but only the latter inhibited ascospore germination, at concentrations of 5 mm or higher. Lesion development on leaf discs was reduced by cyclohexylamine and methylglyoxal bis-[guanyl hydrazone], but not by α-difluoromethylornithine. In the absence of inhibitors, dormant ascospores contained higher polyamine levels than mycelium. • Ascospore germination did not depend on ornithine decarboxylase activity and inhibitors of this enzyme will probably have a limited potential for the control of ascospore-borne plant diseases. On the contrary, spermidine synthase and S-adenosyl-methionine decarboxylase could be more suitable targets for fungicidal action. The relative insensitivity of ascospore germination to polyamine biosynthesis inhibitors may be caused by their high polyamine content.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Gárriz
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas-Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECh), Universidad Nacional de General San Martín-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (UNSAM-CONICET), Chascomús, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María C Dalmasso
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas-Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECh), Universidad Nacional de General San Martín-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (UNSAM-CONICET), Chascomús, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Marina
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas-Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECh), Universidad Nacional de General San Martín-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (UNSAM-CONICET), Chascomús, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Elisa I Rivas
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas-Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECh), Universidad Nacional de General San Martín-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (UNSAM-CONICET), Chascomús, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Oscar A Ruiz
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas-Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECh), Universidad Nacional de General San Martín-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (UNSAM-CONICET), Chascomús, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Fernando L Pieckenstain
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas-Instituto Tecnológico de Chascomús (IIB-INTECh), Universidad Nacional de General San Martín-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (UNSAM-CONICET), Chascomús, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Sannazzaro AI, Alvarez CL, Menéndez AB, Pieckenstain FL, Albertó EO, Ruiz OA. Ornithine and arginine decarboxylase activities and effect of some polyamine biosynthesis inhibitors on Gigaspora rosea germinating spores. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2004; 230:115-21. [PMID: 14734173 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-1097(03)00880-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathways for putrescine biosynthesis and the effects of polyamine biosynthesis inhibitors on the germination and hyphal development of Gigaspora rosea spores were investigated. Incubation of spores with different radioactive substrates demonstrated that both arginine and ornithine decarboxylase pathways participate in putrescine biosynthesis in G. rosea. Spermidine and spermine were the most abundant polyamines in this fungus. The putrescine biosynthesis inhibitors alpha-difluoromethylarginine and alpha-difluoromethylornithine, as well as the spermidine synthase inhibitor cyclohexylamine, slightly decreased polyamine levels. However, only the latter interfered with spore germination. The consequences of the use of putrescine biosynthesis inhibitors for the control of plant pathogenic fungi on the viability of G. rosea spores in soil are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Analía I Sannazzaro
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, Universidad Nacional de General San Martín, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Chascomús, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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