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Garello M, Piombo E, Buonsenso F, Prencipe S, Valente S, Meloni GR, Marcet-Houben M, Gabaldón T, Spadaro D. Several secondary metabolite gene clusters in the genomes of ten Penicillium spp. raise the risk of multiple mycotoxin occurrence in chestnuts. Food Microbiol 2024; 122:104532. [PMID: 38839238 DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2024.104532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2024] [Revised: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Penicillium spp. produce a great variety of secondary metabolites, including several mycotoxins, on food substrates. Chestnuts represent a favorable substrate for Penicillium spp. development. In this study, the genomes of ten Penicillium species, virulent on chestnuts, were sequenced and annotated: P. bialowiezense. P. pancosmium, P. manginii, P. discolor, P. crustosum, P. palitans, P. viridicatum, P. glandicola, P. taurinense and P. terrarumae. Assembly size ranges from 27.5 to 36.8 Mb and the number of encoded genes ranges from 9,867 to 12,520. The total number of predicted biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) in the ten species is 551. The most represented families of BGCs are non ribosomal peptide synthase (191) and polyketide synthase (175), followed by terpene synthases (87). Genome-wide collections of gene phylogenies (phylomes) were reconstructed for each of the newly sequenced Penicillium species allowing for the prediction of orthologous relationships among our species, as well as other 20 annotated Penicillium species available in the public domain. We investigated in silico the presence of BGCs for 10 secondary metabolites, including 5 mycotoxins, whose production was validated in vivo through chemical analyses. Among the clusters present in this set of species we found andrastin A and its related cluster atlantinone A, mycophenolic acid, patulin, penitrem A and the cluster responsible for the synthesis of roquefortine C/glandicoline A/glandicoline B/meleagrin. We confirmed the presence of these clusters in several of the Penicillium species conforming our dataset and verified their capacity to synthesize them in a chestnut-based medium with chemical analysis. Interestingly, we identified mycotoxin clusters in some species for the first time, such as the andrastin A cluster in P. flavigenum and P. taurinense, and the roquefortine C cluster in P. nalgiovense and P. taurinense. Chestnuts proved to be an optimal substrate for species of Penicillium with different mycotoxigenic potential, opening the door to risks related to the occurrence of multiple mycotoxins in the same food matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Garello
- Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DISAFA), University of Turin, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy; AGROINNOVA - Interdepartmental Centre for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector, University of Torino, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Edoardo Piombo
- Department of Forest Mycology and Plant Pathology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Almas Allé 5, 75651, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Fabio Buonsenso
- Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DISAFA), University of Turin, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy; AGROINNOVA - Interdepartmental Centre for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector, University of Torino, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Simona Prencipe
- Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DISAFA), University of Turin, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Silvia Valente
- Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DISAFA), University of Turin, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy; AGROINNOVA - Interdepartmental Centre for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector, University of Torino, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Giovanna Roberta Meloni
- Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DISAFA), University of Turin, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy; AGROINNOVA - Interdepartmental Centre for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector, University of Torino, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Marina Marcet-Houben
- Barcelona Supercomputing Centre (BSC-CNS), Plaça Eusebi Güell, 1-3, 08034, Barcelona, Spain; Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Toni Gabaldón
- Barcelona Supercomputing Centre (BSC-CNS), Plaça Eusebi Güell, 1-3, 08034, Barcelona, Spain; Institute for Research in Biomedicine (IRB Barcelona), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Baldiri Reixac, 10, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Davide Spadaro
- Department of Agricultural, Forest and Food Sciences (DISAFA), University of Turin, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy; AGROINNOVA - Interdepartmental Centre for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector, University of Torino, Largo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy.
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Zhang T, Yan M, Chang M, Hou X, Wang F, Song W, Wang Y, Feng K, Yuan Y, Yue T. Integrated transcriptomics and metabolomics reveal the mechanism of intestinal damage upon acute patulin exposure in mice. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2024; 276:116270. [PMID: 38574645 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2024.116270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024]
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination has become a major food safety issue and greatly threatens human and animal health. Patulin (PAT), a common mycotoxin in the environment, is exposed through the food chain and damages the gastrointestinal tract. However, its mechanism of enterotoxicity at the genetic and metabolic levels remains to be elucidated. Herein, the intestinal histopathological and biochemical indices, transcriptome, and metabolome of C57BL/6 J mice exposed to different doses of PAT were successively assessed, as well as the toxicokinetics of PAT in vivo. The results showed that acute PAT exposure induced damaged villi and crypts, reduced mucus secretion, decreased SOD and GSH-Px activities, and enhanced MPO activity in the small intestine and mild damage in the colon. At the transcriptional level, the genes affected by PAT were dose-dependently altered in the small intestine and fluctuated in the colon. PAT primarily affected inflammation-related signaling pathways and oxidative phosphorylation in the small intestine and immune responses in the colon. At the metabolic level, amino acids decreased, and extensive lipids accumulated in the small intestine and colon. Seven metabolic pathways were jointly affected by PAT in two intestinal sites. Moreover, changes in PAT products and GST activity were detected in the small intestinal tissue but not in the colonic tissue, explaining the different damage degrees of the two sites. Finally, the integrated results collectively explained the toxicological mechanism of PAT, which damaged the small intestine directly and the colon indirectly. These results paint a clear panorama of intestinal changes after PAT exposure and provide valuable information on the exposure risk and toxic mechanism of PAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Zhang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Laboratory of Nutritional and Healthy Food-Individuation Manufacturing Engineering, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Research Center of Food Safety Risk Assessment and Control, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Min Yan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Laboratory of Nutritional and Healthy Food-Individuation Manufacturing Engineering, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Research Center of Food Safety Risk Assessment and Control, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Min Chang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Laboratory of Nutritional and Healthy Food-Individuation Manufacturing Engineering, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Research Center of Food Safety Risk Assessment and Control, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Xiaohui Hou
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Laboratory of Nutritional and Healthy Food-Individuation Manufacturing Engineering, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Research Center of Food Safety Risk Assessment and Control, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Furong Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Laboratory of Nutritional and Healthy Food-Individuation Manufacturing Engineering, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Research Center of Food Safety Risk Assessment and Control, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Wei Song
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Laboratory of Nutritional and Healthy Food-Individuation Manufacturing Engineering, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Research Center of Food Safety Risk Assessment and Control, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Yuan Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Laboratory of Nutritional and Healthy Food-Individuation Manufacturing Engineering, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Research Center of Food Safety Risk Assessment and Control, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Kewei Feng
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Laboratory of Nutritional and Healthy Food-Individuation Manufacturing Engineering, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Research Center of Food Safety Risk Assessment and Control, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Yahong Yuan
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Laboratory of Nutritional and Healthy Food-Individuation Manufacturing Engineering, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Research Center of Food Safety Risk Assessment and Control, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China
| | - Tianli Yue
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Laboratory of Nutritional and Healthy Food-Individuation Manufacturing Engineering, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China; Research Center of Food Safety Risk Assessment and Control, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710069, China.
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Khan R, Anwar F, Ghazali FM. A comprehensive review of mycotoxins: Toxicology, detection, and effective mitigation approaches. Heliyon 2024; 10:e28361. [PMID: 38628751 PMCID: PMC11019184 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins, harmful compounds produced by fungal pathogens, pose a severe threat to food safety and consumer health. Some commonly produced mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and patulin have serious health implications in humans and animals. Mycotoxin contamination is particularly concerning in regions heavily reliant on staple foods like grains, cereals, and nuts. Preventing mycotoxin contamination is crucial for a sustainable food supply. Chromatographic methods like thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and liquid chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer (LC/MS), are commonly used to detect mycotoxins; however, there is a need for on-site, rapid, and cost-effective detection methods. Currently, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA), lateral flow assays (LFAs), and biosensors are becoming popular analytical tools for rapid detection. Meanwhile, preventing mycotoxin contamination is crucial for food safety and a sustainable food supply. Physical, chemical, and biological approaches have been used to inhibit fungal growth and mycotoxin production. However, new strains resistant to conventional methods have led to the exploration of novel strategies like cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) technology, polyphenols and flavonoids, magnetic materials and nanoparticles, and natural essential oils (NEOs). This paper reviews recent scientific research on mycotoxin toxicity, explores advancements in detecting mycotoxins in various foods, and evaluates the effectiveness of innovative mitigation strategies for controlling and detoxifying mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahim Khan
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Farooq Anwar
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM, Serdang, Malaysia
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, 40100, Pakistan
| | - Farinazleen Mohamad Ghazali
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Science and Technology, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, UPM, Serdang, Malaysia
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Yang C, Zhang Z, Peng B. New insights into searching patulin degrading enzymes in Saccharomyces cerevisiae through proteomic and molecular docking analysis. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2024; 463:132806. [PMID: 37922585 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 10/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Global warming has increased the contamination of mycotoxins. Patulin (PAT) is a harmful contaminant that poses a serious threat to food safety and human health. Saccharomyces cerevisiae biodegrades PAT by its enzymes during fermentation, which is a safe and efficient method of detoxification. However, the key degradation enzymes remain unclear. In this study, the proteomic differences of Saccharomyces cerevisiae under PAT stress were investigated. The results showed that the proteins involved in redox reactions and defense mechanisms were significantly up-regulated to resist PAT stress. Subsequently, molecular docking was used to virtual screen for degrading enzymes. Among 18 proteins, YKL069W showed the highest binding affinity to PAT and was then expressed in Escherichia coli, where the purified YKL069W completely degraded 10 μg/mL PAT at 48 h. YKL069W was demonstrated to be able to degrade PAT into E-ascladiol. Molecular dynamics simulations confirmed that YKL069W was stable in catalyzing PAT degradation with a binding free energy of - 7.5 kcal/mol. Furthermore, it was hypothesized that CYS125 and CYS101 were the key amino acid residues for degradation. This study offers new insights for the rapid screening and development of PAT degrading enzymes and provides a theoretical basis for the detoxification of mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Yang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Zhuo Zhang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China.
| | - Bangzhu Peng
- College of Food Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Shenzhen Institute of Nutrition and Health, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China; Shenzhen Branch, Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Genome Analysis Laboratory of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agricultural GenomicsInstitute at Shenzhen, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shenzhen 518000, China.
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5
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Xing M, Chen Y, Dai W, He X, Li B, Tian S. Immobilized short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase on Fe 3O 4 particles acts as a magnetically recoverable biocatalyst component in patulin bio-detoxification system. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 448:130986. [PMID: 36860057 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.130986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 01/29/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Patulin is one of the most important mycotoxins that contaminates fruit-derived products and causes acute or chronic toxicity in humans. In the present study, a novel patulin-degrading enzyme preparation was developed by taking a short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase and covalently linking it to dopamine/polyethyleneimine co-deposited magnetic Fe3O4 particles. Optimum immobilization provided 63% immobilization efficiency and 62% activity recovery. Moreover, the immobilization protocol substantially improved thermal and storage stabilities, proteolysis resistance, and reusability. Using reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate as a cofactor, the immobilized enzyme exhibited a detoxification rate of 100% in phosphate-buffered saline and a detoxification rate of more than 80% in apple juice. The immobilized enzyme did not cause adverse effects on juice quality and could be magnetically separated quickly after detoxification to ensure convenient recycling. Moreover, it did not exhibit cytotoxicity against a human gastric mucosal epithelial cell line at a concentration of 100 mg/L. Consequently, the immobilized enzyme as a biocatalyst had the characteristics of high efficiency, stability, safety, and easy separation, establishing the first step in building a bio-detoxification system to control patulin contamination in juice and beverage products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyang Xing
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Wanqin Dai
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiao He
- CAS Key Laboratory for Biomedical Effects of Nanomaterials and Nanosafety, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Boqiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China.
| | - Shiping Tian
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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Yang C, Peng B. Biodegradation characteristics of patulin by Saccharomyces cerevisiae during fermentation. Food Control 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2022.109463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Tannous J, Labbé J, Keller NP. Identifying Fungal Secondary Metabolites and Their Role in Plant Pathogenesis. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2659:193-218. [PMID: 37249895 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3159-1_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Pathogenic fungi are the main infectious agents of plants. Secondary metabolites produced by these fungi, also recognized as natural products, are key mediators of plant-fungal interactions. Knowledge on the biosynthesis of these metabolites, the accessibility to fungal genome sequences, and the development of gene disruption techniques open up opportunities to identify many more of these metabolites both in vitro and in planta. This methodology chapter gives a detailed systematic approach aiming to discover new natural products from phytopathogenic fungi and characterize their role in triggering plant cell death and plant disease. This approach takes advantage of the global regulation of fungal secondary metabolite production by regulatory proteins reported in various fungal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Tannous
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA.
| | - Jesse Labbé
- Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, USA
- Invaio Sciences, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Nancy P Keller
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
- Department of Pathology, University of Wiconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA.
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Comparative Penicillium spp. Transcriptomics: Conserved Pathways and Processes Revealed in Ungerminated Conidia and during Postharvest Apple Fruit Decay. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10122414. [PMID: 36557667 PMCID: PMC9788453 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10122414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Blue mold, caused by Penicillium spp., is an impactful postharvest disease resulting in significant economic losses due to reduced pome fruit quality and mycotoxin contamination. Using two Penicillium species with different levels of aggressiveness, transcriptomics were implemented in order to identify genes expressed during apple fruit decay and loci expressed in ungerminated conidia. Total RNA was isolated from ungerminated conidia and decayed apple fruit infected with P. expansum R19 or P. polonicum RS1. There were 2442 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the R19 and RS1 in apple. Comparisons within species between apple and conidia revealed 4404 DEGs for R19 and 2935 for RS1, respectively. Gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed differential regulation in fungal transport and metabolism genes during decay, suggesting a flux in nutrient acquisition and detoxification strategies. In R19, the oxidoreductase GO category comprised 20% of all DEG groups in apple verses conidia. Ungerminated conidia from both species showed DEGs encoding the glyoxylate shunt and beta-oxidation, specifying the earliest metabolic requirements for germination. This is the first study to identify pre-loaded transcripts in conidia from blue mold fungi, reveal unique genes between species expressed during apple decay, and show the expression dynamics of known fungal virulence factors. These findings will enable development of targeted approaches for blue mold abatement strategies.
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Degradation of Patulin in Pear Juice and Apple Juice by Ascorbic Acid and the Combination of Ascorbic Acid and Ferrous Iron. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14110737. [PMID: 36355987 PMCID: PMC9696537 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14110737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Patulin (PAT) is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by certain species of Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus sp. on apples and pears. In this study, we investigated the effects of ascorbic acid and the combination of ascorbic acid and ferrous iron on degradation of PAT in 100% pure pear juice and apple juice using high-performance liquid chromatography UV detector (HPLC-UVD). The addition of 2 different levels of ascorbic acid (143 or 286 μg/mL) into pear juice or apple juice containing 0.08 or 0.4 μg/mL of PAT showed 87.7-100% and 67.3-68.7% of PAT degradation rates, respectively, after 24 h incubation at 25 °C. Moreover, the addition of both ascorbic acid (143 or 286 μg/mL) and ferrous iron (0.033 or 0.11 μmol/mL) into pear juice or apple juice containing the same level of PAT exhibited higher PAT degradation rates (100 and 75-94%, respectively) than the addition of only ascorbic acid after 24 h incubation at 25 °C. Our data demonstrated that ascorbic acid plus ferrous iron as well as ascorbic acid were highly effective on degradation of PAT in pear juice and apple juice and that addition of both ascorbic acid and ferrous iron produced higher PAT degradation rates than addition of only ascorbic acid.
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Dai L, Li H, Huang JW, Hu Y, He M, Yang Y, Min J, Guo RT, Chen CC. Structure-based rational design of a short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase for improving activity toward mycotoxin patulin. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 222:421-428. [PMID: 36176222 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.09.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Patulin is a fatal mycotoxin that is widely detected in drinking water and fruit-derived products contaminated by diverse filamentous fungi. CgSDR from Candida guilliermondii represents the first NADPH-dependent short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase that catalyzes the reduction of patulin to the nontoxic E-ascladiol. To elucidate the catalytic mechanism of CgSDR, we solved its crystal structure in complex with cofactor and substrate. Structural analyses indicate that patulin is situated in a hydrophobic pocket adjacent to the cofactor, with the hemiacetal ring orienting toward the nicotinamide moiety of NADPH. In addition, we conducted structure-guided engineering to modify substrate-binding residue V187 and obtained variant V187F, V187K and V187W, whose catalytic activity was elevated by 3.9-, 2.2- and 1.7-fold, respectively. The crystal structures of CgSDR variants suggest that introducing additional aromatic stacking or hydrogen-bonding interactions to bind the lactone ring of patulin might account for the observed enhanced activity. These results illustrate the catalytic mechanism of SDR-mediated patulin detoxification for the first time and provide the upgraded variants that exhibit tremendous potentials in industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Longhai Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China
| | - Hao Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China
| | - Jian-Wen Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China
| | - Yumei Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China
| | - Min He
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China
| | - Yu Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China
| | - Jian Min
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China
| | - Rey-Ting Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China.
| | - Chun-Chi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Green Transformation of Bio-Resources, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, 430062, PR China.
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Abraham N, Schroeter KL, Zhu Y, Chan J, Evans N, Kimber MS, Carere J, Zhou T, Seah SYK. Structure-function characterization of an aldo-keto reductase involved in detoxification of the mycotoxin, deoxynivalenol. Sci Rep 2022; 12:14737. [PMID: 36042239 PMCID: PMC9427786 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-19040-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin, produced by filamentous fungi such as Fusarium graminearum, that causes significant yield losses of cereal grain crops worldwide. One of the most promising methods to detoxify this mycotoxin involves its enzymatic epimerization to 3-epi-DON. DepB plays a critical role in this process by reducing 3-keto-DON, an intermediate in the epimerization process, to 3-epi-DON. DepBRleg from Rhizobium leguminosarum is a member of the new aldo-keto reductase family, AKR18, and it has the unusual ability to utilize both NADH and NADPH as coenzymes, albeit with a 40-fold higher catalytic efficiency with NADPH compared to NADH. Structural analysis of DepBRleg revealed the putative roles of Lys-217, Arg-290, and Gln-294 in NADPH specificity. Replacement of these residues by site-specific mutagenesis to negatively charged amino acids compromised NADPH binding with minimal effects on NADH binding. The substrate-binding site of DepBRleg is larger than its closest structural homolog, AKR6A2, likely contributing to its ability to utilize a wide range of aldehydes and ketones, including the mycotoxin, patulin, as substrates. The structure of DepBRleg also suggests that 3-keto-DON can adopt two binding modes to facilitate 4-pro-R hydride transfer to either the re- or si-face of the C3 ketone providing a possible explanation for the enzyme's ability to convert 3-keto-DON to 3-epi-DON and DON in diastereomeric ratios of 67.2% and 32.8% respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Abraham
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada.,Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Kurt L Schroeter
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Yan Zhu
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Jonathan Chan
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada.,Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Natasha Evans
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada.,Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Matthew S Kimber
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
| | - Jason Carere
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Ting Zhou
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
| | - Stephen Y K Seah
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Canada.
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12
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Palmieri D, Miccoli C, Notardonato I, Avino P, Lima G, De Curtis F, Ianiri G, Castoria R. Modulation of extracellular Penicillium expansum-driven acidification by Papiliotrema terrestris affects biosynthesis of patulin and has a possible role in biocontrol activity. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:973670. [PMID: 35979494 PMCID: PMC9377529 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.973670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The active regulation of extracellular pH is critical for the virulence of fungal pathogens. Penicillium expansum is the causal agent of green-blue mold on stored pome fruits and during its infection process acidifies the host tissues by secreting organic acids. P. expansum is also the main producer of patulin (PAT), a mycotoxin found in pome fruit-based products and that represents a serious health hazard for its potential carcinogenicity. While it is known that PAT biosynthesis in P. expansum is regulated by nutritional factors such as carbon and nitrogen and by the pH, the mechanistic effects of biocontrol on PAT production by P. expansum are not known. In this work, we assessed how optimal and suboptimal concentrations of the biocontrol agent (BCA) Papiliotrema terrestris LS28 affect both extracellular pH and PAT biosynthesis in P. expansum. In wounded apples, the optimal and suboptimal concentrations of the BCA provided almost complete and partial protection from P. expansum infection, respectively, and reduced PAT contamination in both cases. However, the suboptimal concentration of the BCA increased the specific mycotoxigenic activity by P. expansum. In vitro, the rate of PAT biosynthesis was strictly related to the extracellular pH, with the highest amount of PAT detected in the pH range 4–7, whereas only traces were detectable at pH 3. Moreover, both in vitro and in apple wounds the BCA counteracted the extracellular P. expansum-driven acidification maintaining extracellular pH around 4, which is within the pH range that is optimal for PAT biosynthesis. Conversely, in the absence of LS28 the pathogen-driven acidification led to rapidly achieving acidic pH values (<3) that lie outside of the optimal pH range for PAT biosynthesis. Taken together, these results suggest that pH modulation by LS28 is important to counteract the host tissue acidification and, therefore, the virulence of P. expansum. On the other hand, the buffering of P. expansum-driven acidification provided by the BCA increases the specific rate of PAT biosynthesis through the extension of the time interval at which the pH value lies within the optimal range for PAT biosynthesis. Nevertheless, the antagonistic effect provided by the BCA greatly reduced the total amount of PAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Palmieri
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
- Davide Palmieri,
| | - Cecilia Miccoli
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
- Department of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, University of Tuscia, Viterbo, Italy
| | - Ivan Notardonato
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Pasquale Avino
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Lima
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Filippo De Curtis
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Ianiri
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
- Giuseppe Ianiri,
| | - Raffaello Castoria
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy
- *Correspondence: Raffaello Castoria,
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13
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Characterization of Two Dehydrogenases from Gluconobacter oxydans Involved in the Transformation of Patulin to Ascladiol. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14070423. [PMID: 35878161 PMCID: PMC9323132 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14070423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Patulin is a mycotoxin that primarily contaminate apples and apple products. Whole cell or cell-free extracts of Gluconobacter oxydans ATCC 621 were able to transform patulin to E-ascladiol. Proteins from cell-free extracts were separated by anion exchange chromatography and fractions with patulin transformation activity were subjected to peptide mass fingerprinting, enabling the identification of two NADPH dependent short chain dehydrogenases, GOX0525 and GOX1899, with the requisite activity. The genes encoding these enzymes were expressed in E. coli and purified. Kinetic parameters for patulin reduction, as well as pH profiles and thermostability were established to provide further insight on the potential application of these enzymes for patulin detoxification.
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14
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Wang Z, Wang L, Ming Q, Yue T, Ge Q, Yuan Y, Gao Z, Cai R. Reduction the contamination of patulin during the brewing of apple cider and its characteristics. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2022; 39:1149-1162. [PMID: 35343883 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2022.2055155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Patulin is one of the most significant food safety problems in fruit and derived products. The reduction of patulin contamination in food processing has always been the focus of research. In this study, nine yeast strains were applied for the brewing of apple cider and the fate of patulin was determined. In this process, the patulin contamination can be decreased by adsorption onto and degradation of yeast cells in the main fermentation (20.8-49.1%), as well as the adsorption removal during clarification (18.7-58%), inverted cans (21.3-31.4%) and aging (1.0-5.8%). Saccharomyces cerevisiae (1027) was selected to reveal the elimination mechanism of patulin in main fermentation. The decrease of patulin content was mainly due to degradation and the intracellular enzymes played a more important role than extracellular ones. In addition, the synthesis of enzymes was related to the induction of patulin. Furthermore, the degradation product of patulin in the main fermentation was identified as E-ascladiol, which is less toxic than patulin. Based on the representative strain of S. cerevisiae 1027, patulin contamination can be effectively eliminated during apple cider brewing. This study provides a new insight into eliminating patulin contamination in the brewing of apple cider.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhouli Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, China
| | - Leran Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, China
| | - Qiaoying Ming
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, China
| | - Tianli Yue
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, China
| | - Qian Ge
- Institute of Quality Standards and Testing Technology for Agricultural Products (Ningxia), Yinchuan, China
| | - Yahong Yuan
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, China
| | - Zhenpeng Gao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, China.,Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture, Yangling, China
| | - Rui Cai
- College of Food Science and Technology, Northwest University, Xi'an, China
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15
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Xing M, Chen Y, Li B, Tian S. Highly efficient removal of patulin using immobilized enzymes of Pseudomonas aeruginosa TF-06 entrapped in calcium alginate beads. Food Chem 2022; 377:131973. [PMID: 34990945 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Patulin is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by several moulds, which contaminates fruits and their products posing serious threats to human health. Though several microorganisms and enzymes have been reported to effectively degrade patulin, separation of them from fruit juice challenges the commercial applications. Here, a Pseudomonas aeruginosa strain TF-06 was isolated, its patulin degradation mechanism and optimum conditions for enzyme immobilization were investigated. The results indicated that TF-06 could degrade patulin into non-cytotoxic E/Z-ascladiol mainly by the activity of intracellular enzymes. For easy separation of enzymes, calcium alginate was selected for immobilization of intracellular enzymes from TF-06. The immobilized enzyme beads were effective in detoxification of patulin in apple juice. The mitigation rate was reached 95%, while there was no negative effect on juice quality. The study provides a promising way to resolve the issue of enzyme separation during mycotoxin biological detoxification in fruit juice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyang Xing
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Boqiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China.
| | - Shiping Tian
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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16
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Bartholomew HP, Bradshaw MJ, Macarisin O, Gaskins VL, Fonseca JM, Jurick WM. More than a Virulence Factor: Patulin Is a Non-Host-Specific Toxin that Inhibits Postharvest Phytopathogens and Requires Efflux for Penicillium Tolerance. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2022; 112:1165-1174. [PMID: 35365059 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-09-21-0371-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination is a leading cause of food spoilage and waste on a global scale. Patulin, a mycotoxin produced by Penicillium spp. during postharvest pome fruit decay, causes acute and chronic effects in humans, withstands pasteurization, and is not eliminated by fermentation. While much is known about the impact of patulin on human health, there are significant knowledge gaps concerning the effect of patulin during postharvest fruit-pathogen interactions. Application of patulin on six apple cultivars reproduced some blue mold symptoms that were cultivar-independent and dose-dependent. Identical symptoms were also observed in pear and mandarin orange. Six Penicillium isolates exposed to exogenous patulin exhibited delayed germination after 24 h, yet all produced viable colonies in 7 days. However, four common postharvest phytopathogenic fungi were completely inhibited by patulin during conidial germination and growth, suggesting the toxin is important for Penicillium to dominate the postharvest niche. Using clorgyline, a broad-spectrum efflux pump inhibitor, we demonstrated that efflux plays a role in Penicillium auto-resistance to patulin during conidial germination. The work presented here contributes new knowledge of patulin auto-resistance, its mode of action, and inhibitory role in fungal-fungal interactions. Our findings provide a solid foundation to develop toxin and decay mitigation approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly P Bartholomew
- Food Quality Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705
| | - Michael J Bradshaw
- Food Quality Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705
| | - Otilia Macarisin
- Food Quality Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705
| | - Verneta L Gaskins
- Food Quality Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705
| | - Jorge M Fonseca
- Food Quality Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705
| | - Wayne M Jurick
- Food Quality Laboratory, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD 20705
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17
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18
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Liang J, He Q, Zhao Y, Yuan Y, Wang Z, Gao Z, Hu Z, Zhao X, Yue T. Synthesis of sulfhydryl modified bacterial cellulose gel membrane and its application in adsorption of patulin from apple juice. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2022.113159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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19
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Payros D, Garofalo M, Pierron A, Soler-Vasco L, Al-Ayoubi C, Maruo VM, Alassane-Kpembi I, Pinton P, Oswald IP. Les mycotoxines en alimentation humaine : un défi pour la recherche. CAHIERS DE NUTRITION ET DE DIÉTÉTIQUE 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cnd.2021.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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20
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Yang Q, Pang B, Solairaj D, Hu W, Legrand NNG, Ma J, Huang S, Wu X, Zhang H. Effect of Rhodotorula mucilaginosa on patulin degradation and toxicity of degradation products. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 38:1427-1439. [PMID: 34043492 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1923821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Rhodotorula mucilaginosa is an antagonistic yeast for which our research team has recently reported interesting biocontrol activities against blue mould decay of apples and a strong ability to decrease the patulin concentration in vivo. However, the possible mechanisms of patulin degradation by R. mucilaginosa and the toxicity of patulin degradation products remain unclear. In this study, the effect of R. mucilaginosa on patulin degradation and toxicity of degradation products were investigated, the results showed that viable cells of R. mucilaginosa are essential to patulin degradation. Also, R. mucilaginosa eliminated patulin without adsorbing it through its cell wall. The extracellular metabolites of R. mucilaginosa stimulated by patulin showed little degradation activity for patulin. Cycloheximide addition into the medium significantly decreased the patulin degradation capacity of R. mucilaginosa cells. The main patulin degradation product by R. mucilaginosa was ascladiol, which was proved non-toxic to human hepatoma (HepG2) cells at 0.625-10 g/mL. Furthermore, toxicological analysis using a confocal laser scanning microscope revealed that the degradation product induced cellular apoptosis to a lesser extent than patulin itself. This result offers an innovative method to detoxify patulin and limit the risks of patulin in fruits and vegetables using R. mucilaginosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiya Yang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Pang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Dhanasekaran Solairaj
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Weicheng Hu
- Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Regional Modern Agriculture & Environmental Protection/Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Eco-Agricultural Biotechnology around Hongze Lake, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai'an, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | | | - Junfang Ma
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Siyao Huang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiangyang Wu
- School of the Environment and Safety Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongyin Zhang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
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21
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Critical Assessment of Mycotoxins in Beverages and Their Control Measures. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13050323. [PMID: 33946240 PMCID: PMC8145492 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13050323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of filamentous fungi that contaminate food products such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, beverages, and other agricultural commodities. Their occurrence in the food chain, especially in beverages, can pose a serious risk to human health, due to their toxicity, even at low concentrations. Mycotoxins, such as aflatoxins (AFs), ochratoxin A (OTA), patulin (PAT), fumonisins (FBs), trichothecenes (TCs), zearalenone (ZEN), and the alternaria toxins including alternariol, altenuene, and alternariol methyl ether have largely been identified in fruits and their derived products, such as beverages and drinks. The presence of mycotoxins in beverages is of high concern in some cases due to their levels being higher than the limits set by regulations. This review aims to summarize the toxicity of the major mycotoxins that occur in beverages, the methods available for their detection and quantification, and the strategies for their control. In addition, some novel techniques for controlling mycotoxins in the postharvest stage are highlighted.
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22
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Sohrabi H, Arbabzadeh O, Khaaki P, Khataee A, Majidi MR, Orooji Y. Patulin and Trichothecene: characteristics, occurrence, toxic effects and detection capabilities via clinical, analytical and nanostructured electrochemical sensing/biosensing assays in foodstuffs. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:5540-5568. [PMID: 33624529 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1887077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Patulin and Trichothecene as the main groups of mycotoxins in significant quantities can cause health risks from allergic reactions to death on both humans and animals. Accordingly, rapid and highly sensitive determination of these toxics agents is of great importance. This review starts with a comprehensive outlook regarding the characteristics, occurrence and toxic effects of Patulin and Trichothecene. In the following, numerous clinical and analytical approaches have been extensively discussed. The main emphasis of this review is placed on the utilization of novel nanomaterial based electrochemical sensing/biosensing tools for highly sensitive determination of Patulin and Trichothecene. Furthermore, a detailed and comprehensive comparison has been performed between clinical, analytical and sensing methods. Subsequently, the nanomaterial based electrochemical sensing platforms have been approved as reliable tools for on-site analysis of Patulin and Trichothecene in food processing and manufacturing industries. Different nanomaterials in improving the performance of detecting assays were investigated and have various benefits toward clinical and analytical methods. This paper would address the limitations in the current developments as well as the future challenges involved in the successful construction of sensing approaches with the functionalized nanomaterials and also allow exploring into core-research works regarding this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hessamaddin Sohrabi
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Omid Arbabzadeh
- Faculty of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Pegah Khaaki
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Science, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Alireza Khataee
- Research Laboratory of Advanced Water and Wastewater Treatment Processes, Department of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran.,Рeoples' Friendship University of Russia (RUDN University), Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Mir Reza Majidi
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Yasin Orooji
- College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
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23
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Xing M, Chen Y, Li B, Tian S. Characterization of a short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase and its function in patulin biodegradation in apple juice. Food Chem 2021; 348:129046. [PMID: 33508606 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2020] [Revised: 12/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Biodegradation based on microbial enzymes is considered to be one of the promising ways for controlling patulin contamination. However, few patulin degrading enzymes have been isolated and characterized until now. Here, a short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) gene, CgSDR, was cloned from a yeast strain Candida guilliermondii, and expressed in Escherichia coli. The expression of CgSDR conferred a strong patulin tolerance and degradation ability to E. coli, and purified CgSDR could transform patulin into E-ascladiol in vitro with NADPH as a coenzyme. Moreover, addition of CgSDR at 150 μg/mL could reduce 80% of patulin in apple juice and the biodegradation process did not affect the quality of the apple juice. A molecular docking analysis and site-directed mutagenesis indicated that CgSDR might interact with patulin via VAL188 as an active binding sites. The findings provide new insights for developing enzymic formulations for mycotoxin detoxification in fruit derived products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyang Xing
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Boqiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China.
| | - Shiping Tian
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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24
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Tragni V, Cotugno P, De Grassi A, Cavalluzzi MM, Mincuzzi A, Lentini G, Sanzani SM, Ippolito A, Pierri CL. Targeting Penicillium expansum GMC Oxidoreductase with High Affinity Small Molecules for Reducing Patulin Production. BIOLOGY 2020; 10:biology10010021. [PMID: 33396459 PMCID: PMC7824139 DOI: 10.3390/biology10010021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary With the urgent necessity of potential treatments for limiting mycotoxin production and postharvest fungal rots, we propose a combined in silico/in vitro/in vivo strategy for the rapid and effective identification of bioactive small molecules, chosen among a chemical library hosting approved drugs and phytochemicals, to be used after harvest. The molecular target of our analysis was the GMC oxidoreductase from Penicillium expansum involved in the biosynthesis of patulin, a mycotoxin that can contaminate many foods, especially fruits and fruit-based products. The employed in silico/in vitro/in vivo assays described in our study proved the effectiveness of our strategy and in particular of two small molecules, 6-hydroxycoumarin (structurally related to umbelliferon, an already characterized patulin synthase inhibitor) and meticrane (an already approved drug) in reducing patulin accumulation. Our findings highly recommend the mentioned ligands to be subjected to further analysis for being used in the next future in place of other more toxic compounds, in postharvest treatments based on dipping or drenching methods. Abstract Flavine adenine dinucleotide (FAD) dependent glucose methanol choline oxidoreductase (GMC oxidoreductase) is the terminal key enzyme of the patulin biosynthetic pathway. GMC oxidoreductase catalyzes the oxidative ring closure of (E)-ascladiol to patulin. Currently, no protein involved in the patulin biosynthesis in Penicillium expansum has been experimentally characterized or solved by X-ray diffraction. Consequently, nothing is known about P. expansum GMC oxidoreductase substrate-binding site and mode of action. In the present investigation, a 3D comparative model for P. expansum GMC oxidoreductase has been described. Furthermore, a multistep computational approach was used to identify P. expansum GMC oxidoreductase residues involved in the FAD binding and in substrate recognition. Notably, the obtained 3D comparative model of P. expansum GMC oxidoreductase was used for performing a virtual screening of a chemical/drug library, which allowed to predict new GMC oxidoreductase high affinity ligands to be tested in in vitro/in vivo assays. In vitro assays performed in presence of 6-hydroxycoumarin and meticrane, among the highly affinity predicted binders, confirmed a dose-dependent inhibition (17–81%) of patulin production by 6-hydroxycoumarin (10 µM–1 mM concentration range), whereas the approved drug meticrane inhibited patulin production by 43% already at 10 µM. Furthermore, 6-hydroxycoumarin and meticrane caused a 60 and 41% reduction of patulin production, respectively, in vivo on apples at 100 µg/wound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Tragni
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy; (V.T.); (A.M.)
| | - Pietro Cotugno
- Biology Department, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy;
| | - Anna De Grassi
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Molecular and Structural Biology, Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, Via E. Orabona, 4, 70125 Bari, Italy;
- BROWSer S.r.l., c/o Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, Biopharmaceutics, University “Aldo Moro” of Bari, Via E. Orabona, 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
| | - Maria Maddalena Cavalluzzi
- Dipartimento di Farmacia—Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy; (M.M.C.); (G.L.)
| | - Annamaria Mincuzzi
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy; (V.T.); (A.M.)
| | - Giovanni Lentini
- Dipartimento di Farmacia—Scienze del Farmaco, Università degli Studi di Bari Aldo Moro, via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy; (M.M.C.); (G.L.)
| | - Simona Marianna Sanzani
- CIHEAM Bari, Via Ceglie 9, 70010 Valenzano (BA), Italy
- Correspondence: (S.M.S.); (A.I.); ; (C.L.P.); Tel.: +39-0805443614 (C.L.P.); Fax: +39-0805442770 (C.L.P.)
| | - Antonio Ippolito
- Department of Soil, Plant and Food Sciences, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Via Amendola 165/A, 70126 Bari, Italy; (V.T.); (A.M.)
- Correspondence: (S.M.S.); (A.I.); ; (C.L.P.); Tel.: +39-0805443614 (C.L.P.); Fax: +39-0805442770 (C.L.P.)
| | - Ciro Leonardo Pierri
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Molecular and Structural Biology, Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, Biopharmaceutics, University of Bari, Via E. Orabona, 4, 70125 Bari, Italy;
- BROWSer S.r.l., c/o Department of Biosciences, Biotechnologies, Biopharmaceutics, University “Aldo Moro” of Bari, Via E. Orabona, 4, 70126 Bari, Italy
- Correspondence: (S.M.S.); (A.I.); ; (C.L.P.); Tel.: +39-0805443614 (C.L.P.); Fax: +39-0805442770 (C.L.P.)
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25
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Assaf CEH, De Clercq N, De Paepe E, Vlaemynck G, Van Coillie E, Van Pamel E. Effect of ascorbic acid, oxygen and storage duration on patulin in cloudy apple juice produced on a semi-industrial scale. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2020. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2019.2528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT), a mycotoxin mainly produced by Penicillium expansum, is of high concern with regard to human food safety. This study examined the stability of PAT in artificially contaminated cloudy apple juice (CAJ) produced on a semi-industrial scale using an innovative technology allowing degassing and pressing under low-oxygen conditions (VaculIQ 1000). The effects of adding ascorbic acid (AA), degassing during production and storing in the dark at 20 °C on the PAT concentration were studied, as well as possible degradation and reaction products formed. The highest PAT degradation (50%) was observed for flash-pasteurised juice with AA added, produced under low-oxygen conditions and degassed and stored for 14 days at 20 °C in the dark in aluminium laminate aseptic bags. Juices produced showed no significant differences in the quality parameters measured and did not show significant formation of reaction products. Further research needs to be focused on the fate of PAT in CAJ produced on an industrial level with and without addition of AA.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. El Hajj Assaf
- Flanders Research Institute for Agricultural, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 31027 Toulouse, France
| | - N. De Clercq
- Flanders Research Institute for Agricultural, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - E. De Paepe
- Flanders Research Institute for Agricultural, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - G. Vlaemynck
- Flanders Research Institute for Agricultural, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - E. Van Coillie
- Flanders Research Institute for Agricultural, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
| | - E. Van Pamel
- Flanders Research Institute for Agricultural, Fisheries and Food (ILVO), Technology and Food Science Unit, Brusselsesteenweg 370, 9090 Melle, Belgium
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26
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The characteristics of patulin detoxification by Lactobacillus plantarum 13M5. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 146:111787. [PMID: 33031840 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT) is a widespread mycotoxin that harms the health of both humans and animals. In this study, among the 17 tested Lactobacillus plantarum strains, L. plantarum 13M5, isolated from traditional Chinese fermented foods, showed the highest PAT degradation rate of up to 43.8% (PAT 5 mg/L). Evaluation of the living and dead 13M5 cells revealed that only the living cells had the ability to remove PAT and degrade it into E-ascladiol. A cell-based assay revealed that L. plantarum 13M5 administration alleviated PAT-induced injuries in Caco-2 cells, including cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and tight junction disruption. Our results suggest that L. plantarum 13M5 has the potential to reduce PAT toxicity and can thus be used as a probiotic supplement to reduce or eliminate the toxicity of PAT ingested from diet.
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27
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Tran VN, Viktorová J, Ruml T. Mycotoxins: Biotransformation and Bioavailability Assessment Using Caco-2 Cell Monolayer. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E628. [PMID: 33008111 PMCID: PMC7601793 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The determination of mycotoxins content in food is not sufficient for the prediction of their potential in vivo cytotoxicity because it does not reflect their bioavailability and mutual interactions within complex matrices, which may significantly alter the toxic effects. Moreover, many mycotoxins undergo biotransformation and metabolization during the intestinal absorption process. Biotransformation is predominantly the conversion of mycotoxins meditated by cytochrome P450 and other enzymes. This should transform the toxins to nontoxic metabolites but it may possibly result in unexpectedly high toxicity. Therefore, the verification of biotransformation and bioavailability provides valuable information to correctly interpret occurrence data and biomonitoring results. Among all of the methods available, the in vitro models using monolayer formed by epithelial cells from the human colon (Caco-2 cell) have been extensively used for evaluating the permeability, bioavailability, intestinal transport, and metabolism of toxic and biologically active compounds. Here, the strengths and limitations of both in vivo and in vitro techniques used to determine bioavailability are reviewed, along with current detailed data about biotransformation of mycotoxins. Furthermore, the molecular mechanism of mycotoxin effects is also discussed regarding the disorder of intestinal barrier integrity induced by mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Tomáš Ruml
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Chemistry and Technology, Technicka 3, 166 28 Prague 6, Czech Republic; (V.N.T.); (J.V.)
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28
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Zetina-Serrano C, Rocher O, Naylies C, Lippi Y, Oswald IP, Lorber S, Puel O. The brlA Gene Deletion Reveals That Patulin Biosynthesis Is Not Related to Conidiation in Penicillium expansum. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E6660. [PMID: 32932988 PMCID: PMC7555563 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2020] [Revised: 09/03/2020] [Accepted: 09/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Dissemination and survival of ascomycetes is through asexual spores. The brlA gene encodes a C2H2-type zinc-finger transcription factor, which is essential for asexual development. Penicillium expansum causes blue mold disease and is the main source of patulin, a mycotoxin that contaminates apple-based food. A P. expansum PeΔbrlA deficient strain was generated by homologous recombination. In vivo, suppression of brlA completely blocked the development of conidiophores that takes place after the formation of coremia/synnemata, a required step for the perforation of the apple epicarp. Metabolome analysis displayed that patulin production was enhanced by brlA suppression, explaining a higher in vivo aggressiveness compared to the wild type (WT) strain. No patulin was detected in the synnemata, suggesting that patulin biosynthesis stopped when the fungus exited the apple. In vitro transcriptome analysis of PeΔbrlA unveiled an up-regulated biosynthetic gene cluster (PEXP_073960-PEXP_074060) that shares high similarity with the chaetoglobosin gene cluster of Chaetomium globosum. Metabolome analysis of PeΔbrlA confirmed these observations by unveiling a greater diversity of chaetoglobosin derivatives. We observed that chaetoglobosins A and C were found only in the synnemata, located outside of the apple, whereas other chaetoglobosins were detected in apple flesh, suggesting a spatial-temporal organization of the chaetoglobosin biosynthesis pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Olivier Puel
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRAE, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 31027 Toulouse, France; (C.Z.-S.); (O.R.); (C.N.); (Y.L.); (I.P.O.); (S.L.)
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29
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Li B, Chen Y, Zhang Z, Qin G, Chen T, Tian S. Molecular basis and regulation of pathogenicity and patulin biosynthesis in
Penicillium expansum. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 19:3416-3438. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Boqiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
- Key Laboratory of Post‐Harvest Handing of Fruits Ministry of Agriculture Beijing China
| | - Yong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
| | - Zhanquan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
| | - Guozheng Qin
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
- Key Laboratory of Post‐Harvest Handing of Fruits Ministry of Agriculture Beijing China
| | - Tong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
| | - Shiping Tian
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
- Key Laboratory of Post‐Harvest Handing of Fruits Ministry of Agriculture Beijing China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences Beijing China
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30
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Ianiri G, Heitman J. Approaches for Genetic Discoveries in the Skin Commensal and Pathogenic Malassezia Yeasts. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020; 10:393. [PMID: 32850491 PMCID: PMC7426719 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Malassezia includes yeasts belong to the subphylum Ustilaginomycotina within the Basidiomycota. Malassezia yeasts are commonly found as commensals on human and animal skin. Nevertheless, Malassezia species are also associated with several skin disorders, such as dandruff/seborrheic dermatitis, atopic eczema, pityriasis versicolor, and folliculitis. More recently, associations of Malassezia with Crohn's disease, pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma, and cystic fibrosis pulmonary exacerbation have been reported. The increasing availability of genomic and molecular tools have played a crucial role in understanding the genetic basis of Malassezia commensalism and pathogenicity. In the present review we report genomics advances in Malassezia highlighting unique features that potentially impacted Malassezia biology and host adaptation. Furthermore, we describe the recently developed protocols for Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation in Malassezia, and their applications for random insertional mutagenesis or targeted gene replacement strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Ianiri
- Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, Università degli Studi del Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Joseph Heitman
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, United States
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31
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Ngolong Ngea GL, Yang Q, Castoria R, Zhang X, Routledge MN, Zhang H. Recent trends in detecting, controlling, and detoxifying of patulin mycotoxin using biotechnology methods. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2020; 19:2447-2472. [PMID: 33336983 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2020] [Revised: 06/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT) is a mycotoxin that can contaminate many foods and especially fruits and fruit-based products. Therefore, accurate and effective testing is necessary to enable producers to comply with regulations and promote food safety. Traditional approaches involving the use of chemical compounds or physical treatments in food have provided practical methods that have been used to date. However, growing concerns about environmental and health problems associated with these approaches call for new alternatives. In contrast, recent advances in biotechnology have revolutionized the understanding of living organisms and brought more effective biological tools. This review, therefore, focuses on the study of biotechnology approaches for the detection, control, and mitigation of PAT in food. Future aspects of biotechnology development to overcome the food safety problem posed by PAT were also examined. We find that biotechnology advances offer novel, more effective, and environmental friendly approaches for the control and elimination of PAT in food compared to traditional methods. Biosensors represent the future of PAT detection and use biological tools such as aptamer, enzyme, and antibody. PAT prevention strategies include microbial biocontrol, the use of antifungal biomolecules, and the use of microorganisms in combination with antifungal molecules. PAT detoxification aims at the breakdown and removal of PAT in food by using enzymes, microorganisms, and various adsorbent biopolymers. Finally, biotechnology advances will be dependent on the understanding of fundamental biology of living organisms regarding PAT synthesis and resistance mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Legrand Ngolong Ngea
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.,Institute of Fisheries Sciences, University of Douala, Douala, Cameroon
| | - Qiya Yang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Raffaello Castoria
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.,Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, Università degli Studi del Molise, Campobasso, Italy
| | - Xiaoyun Zhang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Michael N Routledge
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China.,Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK
| | - Hongyin Zhang
- School of Food and Biological Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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32
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Zheng X, Wei W, Rao S, Gao L, Li H, Yang Z. Degradation of patulin in fruit juice by a lactic acid bacteria strain Lactobacillus casei YZU01. Food Control 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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33
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Xing M, Li B, Chen Y, Tian S. Ribonucleoside Diphosphate Reductase Plays an Important Role in Patulin Degradation by Enterobacter cloacae subsp. dissolvens. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:5232-5240. [PMID: 32293876 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c01613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Patulin contamination is a worldwide concern due to its significant impact on human health. Several yeast strains have been screened for patulin biodegradation; however, little information is available on bacterial strains and their mechanism of degradation. In the present study, we isolated a bacterial strain TT-09 and identified it as Enterobacter cloacae subsp. dissolvens based on the BioLog system and 16S rDNA phylogenetic analysis. The strain was demonstrated to be able to transform patulin into E-ascladiol. Isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantitation and reverse transcription quantitative polymerase chain reaction analyses provided evidence that ribonucleoside diphosphate reductase (NrdA), an important enzyme involved in DNA biosynthesis, plays a crucial role in patulin degradation. Deletion of nrdA resulted in a total loss in the ability to degrade patulin in TT-09. These results indicate a new function for NrdA in mycotoxin biodegradation. The present study provides evidence for understanding a new mechanism of patulin degradation and information that can be used to develop new approaches for managing patulin contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengyang Xing
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Boqiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Yong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Shiping Tian
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, The Innovative Academy of Seed Design, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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34
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Tannous J, Barda O, Luciano-Rosario D, Prusky DB, Sionov E, Keller NP. New Insight Into Pathogenicity and Secondary Metabolism of the Plant Pathogen Penicillium expansum Through Deletion of the Epigenetic Reader SntB. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:610. [PMID: 32328048 PMCID: PMC7160234 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Penicillium expansum is one of the most harmful post-harvest pathogens of pomaceous fruits and the causal agent of blue rot disease. During infection, P. expansum produces the toxic secondary metabolites patulin and citrinin that can impact virulence and, further, render the fruit inedible. Several studies have shown that epigenetic machinery controls synthesis of secondary metabolites in fungi. In this regard, the epigenetic reader, SntB, has been reported to govern the production of multiple toxins in Aspergillus species, and impact virulence of plant pathogenic fungi. Here we show that deletion of sntB in P. expansum results in several phenotypic changes in the fungus including stunted vegetative growth, reduced conidiation, but enhanced germination rates as well as decreased virulence on Golden Delicious apples. In addition, a decrease in both patulin and citrinin biosynthesis in vitro and patulin in apples, was observed. SntB positively regulates expression of three global regulators of virulence and secondary metabolism (LaeA, CreA, and PacC) which may explain in part some of the phenotypic and virulence defects of the PeΔsntB strain. Lastly, results from this study revealed that the controlled environmental factors (low temperatures and high CO2 levels) to which P. expansum is commonly exposed during fruit storage, resulted in a significant reduction of sntB expression and consequent patulin and citrinin reduction. These data identify the epigenetic reader SntB as critical factor regulated in post-harvest pathogens under storage conditions and a potential target to control fungal colonization and decaying of stored fruit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Tannous
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, United States
| | - Omer Barda
- Institute of Postharvest and Food Sciences, The Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | | | - Dov B Prusky
- Institute of Postharvest and Food Sciences, The Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion, Israel.,College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou, China
| | - Edward Sionov
- Institute of Postharvest and Food Sciences, The Volcani Center, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Nancy P Keller
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Food Research Institute, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, United States.,Department of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI, United States
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35
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Gauthier T, Duarte-Hospital C, Vignard J, Boutet-Robinet E, Sulyok M, Snini SP, Alassane-Kpembi I, Lippi Y, Puel S, Oswald IP, Puel O. Versicolorin A, a precursor in aflatoxins biosynthesis, is a food contaminant toxic for human intestinal cells. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 137:105568. [PMID: 32106047 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most potent carcinogen among mycotoxins. Its biosynthesis involves the formation of versicolorin A (VerA), whose chemical structure shares many features with AFB1. Our data revealed significant levels of VerA in foodstuff from Central Asia and Africa. Given this emerging food risk, it was of prime interest to compare the toxic effects of the two mycotoxins against cells originating from the intestinal tract. We used human colon cell lines (Caco-2, HCT116) to investigate the cytotoxic process induced by the two mycotoxins. Contrary to AFB1, a low dose of VerA (1 µM) disturbed the expression level of thousands of genes (18 002 genes). We show that the cytotoxic effects of low doses of VerA (1-20 µM) were stronger than the same low doses of AFB1 in both Caco-2 and HCT116 cell lines. In Caco-2 cells, VerA induced DNA strand breaks that led to apoptosis and reduced DNA replication of dividing cells, consequently inhibiting cell proliferation. Although VerA was able to induce the p53 signaling pathway in p53 wild-type HCT116 cells, its toxicity process did not mainly rely on p53 expression since similar cytotoxic effects were also observed in HCT116 cells that do not express p53. In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the risk of food contamination by VerA and shed light on its toxicological effect on human colon cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thierry Gauthier
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France.
| | - Carolina Duarte-Hospital
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Julien Vignard
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Elisa Boutet-Robinet
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), A-3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Selma P Snini
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Imourana Alassane-Kpembi
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Yannick Lippi
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Sylvie Puel
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Isabelle P Oswald
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Olivier Puel
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, Toulouse, France.
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36
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Li P, Su R, Yin R, Lai D, Wang M, Liu Y, Zhou L. Detoxification of Mycotoxins through Biotransformation. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12020121. [PMID: 32075201 PMCID: PMC7076809 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12020121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 02/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic fungal secondary metabolites that pose a major threat to the safety of food and feed. Mycotoxins are usually converted into less toxic or non-toxic metabolites through biotransformation that are often made by living organisms as well as the isolated enzymes. The conversions mainly include hydroxylation, oxidation, hydrogenation, de-epoxidation, methylation, glycosylation and glucuronidation, esterification, hydrolysis, sulfation, demethylation and deamination. Biotransformations of some notorious mycotoxins such as alfatoxins, alternariol, citrinin, fomannoxin, ochratoxins, patulin, trichothecenes and zearalenone analogues are reviewed in detail. The recent development and applications of mycotoxins detoxification through biotransformation are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Li
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (P.L.); (R.S.); (R.Y.); (D.L.)
| | - Ruixue Su
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (P.L.); (R.S.); (R.Y.); (D.L.)
| | - Ruya Yin
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (P.L.); (R.S.); (R.Y.); (D.L.)
| | - Daowan Lai
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (P.L.); (R.S.); (R.Y.); (D.L.)
| | - Mingan Wang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China;
| | - Yang Liu
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China;
| | - Ligang Zhou
- Department of Plant Pathology, College of Plant Protection, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China; (P.L.); (R.S.); (R.Y.); (D.L.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-10-6273-1199
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Altunay N, Elik A, Gürkan R. A novel, green and safe ultrasound-assisted emulsification liquid phase microextraction based on alcohol-based deep eutectic solvent for determination of patulin in fruit juices by spectrophotometry. J Food Compost Anal 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2019.103256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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38
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Alvarez A, Gelezoglo R, Garmendia G, González ML, Magnoli AP, Arrarte E, Cavaglieri LR, Vero S. Role of Antarctic yeast in biocontrol of Penicillium expansum and patulin reduction of apples. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s42398-019-00081-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Oporto CI, Villarroel CA, Tapia SM, García V, Cubillos FA. Distinct Transcriptional Changes in Response to Patulin Underlie Toxin Biosorption Differences in Saccharomyces Cerevisiae. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11070400. [PMID: 31295862 PMCID: PMC6669508 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11070400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Patulin (4-hydroxy-4H-furo[3,2c]pyran-2[6H]-one) is a mycotoxin produced by a suite of fungi species. Patulin is toxic to humans and is a sporadic contaminant in products that were made from fungi-infected fruits. The baker yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae) has been shown to decrease patulin levels likely by converting it to the less harmful E-ascladiol, yet this capacity is dependent on the strain utilized. In this study we show that four representative strains of different S. cerevisiae lineages differ in their ability to tolerate and decrease patulin levels in solution, demonstrating that some strains are better suitable for patulin biocontrol. Indeed, we tested the biocontrol capacities of the best patulin-reducer strain (WE) in contaminated apple juice and demonstrated their potential role as an efficient natural biocontrol solution. To investigate the mechanisms behind the differences between strains, we explored transcriptomic changes of the top (WE strain) and worst (WA strain) patulin-biocontroller strains after being exposed to this toxin. Large and significant gene expression differences were found between these two strains, the majority of which represented genes associated with protein biosynthesis, cell wall composition and redox homeostasis. Interestingly, the WE isolate exhibited an overrepresentation of up-regulated genes involved in membrane components, suggesting an active role of the membrane towards patulin detoxification. In contrast, WA upregulated genes were associated with RNA metabolism and ribosome biogenesis, suggesting a patulin impact upon transcription and translation activity. These results suggest that different genotypes of S. cerevisiae encounter different stresses from patulin toxicity and that different rates of detoxification of this toxin might be related with the plasma membrane composition. Altogether, our data demonstrates the different molecular mechanisms in S. cerevisiae strains withstanding patulin exposure and opens new avenues for the selection of new patulin biocontroller strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian I Oporto
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago 9170022, Chile
- Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBio), Santiago 7500574, Chile
| | - Carlos A Villarroel
- Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBio), Santiago 7500574, Chile
| | - Sebastián M Tapia
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago 9170022, Chile
- Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBio), Santiago 7500574, Chile
| | - Verónica García
- Centro de Estudios en Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos (CECTA), Universidad de Santiago de Chile (USACH), Santiago 9170201, Chile
- Departamento de Ciencia y Tecnología de los Alimentos, Universidad de Santiago de Chile (USACH), Santiago 9170022, Chile
| | - Francisco A Cubillos
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago 9170022, Chile.
- Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBio), Santiago 7500574, Chile.
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Effects of ascorbic acid on patulin in aqueous solution and in cloudy apple juice. Mycotoxin Res 2019; 35:341-351. [PMID: 31119557 DOI: 10.1007/s12550-019-00354-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2018] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Degradation of the mycotoxin patulin (PAT) and the generation of (less toxic) breakdown products, such as (E/Z)-ascladiol (ASC-E/Z) and desoxypatulinic acid (D-PAT), can occur due to chemical, physical and biological treatments. Our study focused on the chemical degradation of PAT in the presence of ascorbic acid (AA) both for pure PAT standard in acidified aqueous solution and for PAT-contaminated cloudy apple juice (CAJ) (obtained via addition of apple mash produced from apples inoculated with Penicillium expansum). Within this framework, different concentrations of AA were evaluated, as well as the presence/absence of oxygen and different storage temperatures. In order to do so, an in-house methodology allowing a good separation of PAT from its reaction and breakdown products was optimized first. The highest PAT reduction (60%) in CAJ with an initial PAT concentration of 100 μg/kg and 0.25% (w/v) AA was achieved after 6 days of incubation at 22 °C in the presence of oxygen. It was also found that the treatment by AA resulted in the generation of degradation products less toxic than PAT (such as (E/Z)-ASC). In conclusion, AA used to improve numerous product quality aspects (e.g. colour (less browning), nutritional value, etc.) and considered as a safe food additive (Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (1999)) has an effect on PAT degradation. It was shown that such degradation generated less toxic compounds in the presence of oxygen. In view of consumers' safety, fortification of apple juice (and possibly apple-based products) with AA could be helpful within an integrated system to ensure products with low levels of patulin. The optimum conditions for such an approach within a legal and practical point of view need to be further explored.
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41
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Sajid M, Mehmood S, Yuan Y, Yue T. Mycotoxin patulin in food matrices: occurrence and its biological degradation strategies. Drug Metab Rev 2019; 51:105-120. [PMID: 30857445 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2019.1589493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Patulin is a mycotoxin produced by a number of filamentous fungal species. It is a polyketide secondary metabolite which can gravely cause human health problems and food safety issues. This review deals with the occurrence of patulin in major food commodities from 2008 to date, including historical aspects, source, occurrence, regulatory limits and its toxicity. Most importantly, an overview of the recent research progress about the biodegradation strategies for contaminated food matrices is provided. The physical and chemical approaches have some drawbacks such as safety issues, possible losses in the nutritional quality, chemical hazards, limited efficacy, and high cost. The biological decontamination based on elimination or degradation of patulin using yeast, bacteria, and fungi has shown good results and it seems to be attractive since it works under mild and environment-friendly conditions. Further studies are needed to make clear the detoxification pathways by available potential biosorbents and to determine the practical applications of these methods at a commercial level to remove patulin from food products with special reference to their effects on sensory characteristics of foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Sajid
- a College of Food Science and Engineering , Northwest A&F University , Yangling , China.,b Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro Products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture , Yangling , China.,c National Engineering Research Center of Agriculture Integration Test (Yangling) , Yangling , China
| | - Sajid Mehmood
- d State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Plant Protection , Northwest A&F University , Yangling , China
| | - Yahong Yuan
- a College of Food Science and Engineering , Northwest A&F University , Yangling , China.,b Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro Products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture , Yangling , China.,c National Engineering Research Center of Agriculture Integration Test (Yangling) , Yangling , China
| | - Tianli Yue
- a College of Food Science and Engineering , Northwest A&F University , Yangling , China.,b Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment for Agro Products (Yangling), Ministry of Agriculture , Yangling , China.,c National Engineering Research Center of Agriculture Integration Test (Yangling) , Yangling , China
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42
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Li B, Chen Y, Zong Y, Shang Y, Zhang Z, Xu X, Wang X, Long M, Tian S. Dissection of patulin biosynthesis, spatial control and regulation mechanism in Penicillium expansum. Environ Microbiol 2019; 21:1124-1139. [PMID: 30680886 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.14542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Revised: 01/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The patulin biosynthesis is one of model pathways in an understanding of secondary metabolite biology and network novelties in fungi. However, molecular regulation mechanism of patulin biosynthesis and contribution of each gene related to the different catalytic enzymes in the biochemical steps of the pathway remain largely unknown in fungi. In this study, the genetic components of patulin biosynthetic pathway were systematically dissected in Penicillium expansum, which is an important fungal pathogen and patulin producer in harvested fruits and vegetables. Our results revealed that all the 15 genes in the cluster are involved in patulin biosynthesis. Proteins encoded by those genes are compartmentalized in various subcellular locations, including cytosol, nucleus, vacuole, endoplasmic reticulum, plasma membrane and cell wall. The subcellular localizations of some proteins, such as PatE and PatH, are required for the patulin production. Further, the functions of eight enzymes in the 10-step patulin biosynthetic pathway were verified in P. expansum. Moreover, velvet family proteins, VeA, VelB and VelC, were proved to be involved in the regulation of patulin biosynthesis, but not VosA. These findings provide a thorough understanding of the biosynthesis pathway, spatial control and regulation mechanism of patulin in fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boqiang Li
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Yong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zong
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Yanjiao Shang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Zhanquan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China
| | - Xiaodi Xu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Manyuan Long
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - Shiping Tian
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100093, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.,Key Laboratory of Biotechnology and Bioresources Utilization, Ministry of Education, Dalian 116600, China
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43
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Zhang Z, Li M, Wu C, Peng B. Physical adsorption of patulin by Saccharomyces cerevisiae during fermentation. Journal of Food Science and Technology 2019; 56:2326-2331. [PMID: 30996467 DOI: 10.1007/s13197-019-03681-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Patulin (PAT), a mycotoxin mainly produced by various species of fungi, is frequently detected in moldy fruit- and vegetable-based products, which pose a health risk to the consumer. Over the past decades, a few studies reported that PAT content could be significantly decreased by microbial fermentation process. However, the physical adsorption mechanism between PAT and yeast during fermentation is still unclear. In this paper, we focused on the physical adsorption of PAT by Saccharomyces cerevisiae CCTCC 93161 during fermentation in aqueous solutions. Firstly, morphology of differently treated yeast cells were analyzed by scanning electron microscope, then the interactions between PAT and yeast cells were investigated by infrared absorption spectra of differently treated S. Cerevisiae cells before and after the adsorption of PAT. The results showed that the efficiency of PAT removal raised significantly with the increase of fermentation temperature and time, whereas it decreased significantly with the increase of initial PAT concentration in the fermentation system. The proteins and polysaccharides in the cell walls of yeast interacted with PAT and accounted for the physical adsorption. The current work would possibly provide some new insights on PAT control for fermented foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuo Zhang
- 1Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, Ministry of Education, College of Food Science & Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China
| | - Min Li
- 1Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, Ministry of Education, College of Food Science & Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China
| | - Caie Wu
- 2College of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037 China
| | - Bangzhu Peng
- 1Key Laboratory of Environment Correlative Dietology, Ministry of Education, College of Food Science & Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, 430070 Hubei China
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44
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Pinedo C, Wright SAI, Collado IG, Goss RJM, Castoria R, Hrelia P, Maffei F, Durán-Patrón R. Isotopic Labeling Studies Reveal the Patulin Detoxification Pathway by the Biocontrol Yeast Rhodotorula kratochvilovae LS11. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2018; 81:2692-2699. [PMID: 30460844 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.8b00539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Patulin (1) is a mycotoxin contaminant in fruit and vegetable products worldwide. Biocontrol agents, such as the yeast Rhodotorula kratochvilovae strain LS11, can reduce patulin (1) contamination in food. R. kratochvilovae LS11 converts patulin (1) into desoxypatulinic acid (DPA) (5), which is less cytotoxic than the mycotoxin (1) to in vitro human lymphocytes. In the present study, we report our investigations into the pathway of degradation of patulin (1) to DPA (5) by R. kratochvilovae. Isotopic labeling experiments revealed that 5 derives from patulin (1) through the hydrolysis of the γ-lactone ring and subsequent enzymatic modifications. The ability of patulin (1) and DPA (5) to cause genetic damage was also investigated by the cytokinesis-block micronucleus cytome assay on in vitro human lymphocytes. Patulin (1) was demonstrated to cause much higher chromosomal damage than DPA (5).
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Pinedo
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias , Universidad de Cádiz , Campus Universitario Río San Pedro s/n, Torre sur, 4a planta, 11510 , Puerto Real , Cádiz , Spain
| | - Sandra A I Wright
- Section of Biology, Faculties of Health and Occupational Studies & Engineering and Sustainable Development , University of Gävle , 801 76 Gävle , Sweden
| | - Isidro G Collado
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias , Universidad de Cádiz , Campus Universitario Río San Pedro s/n, Torre sur, 4a planta, 11510 , Puerto Real , Cádiz , Spain
| | - Rebecca J M Goss
- School of Chemistry, Biomedical Sciences Research Complex , University of St Andrews , Fife , Scotland KY169ST , United Kingdom
| | - Raffaello Castoria
- Dipartimento Agricoltura, Ambiente, Alimenti , Università degli Studi del Molise , Via F. De Sanctis snc , 86100 Campobasso , Italy
| | - Patrizia Hrelia
- Dipartimento di Farmacia e Biotecnologie , Alma Mater Studiorum-Università di Bologna , Via Irnerio, 48 , 40126 Bologna , Italy
| | - Francesca Maffei
- Dipartimento di Scienze per la Qualità della Vita , Alma Mater Studiorum-Università di Bologna , Campus Rimini, Corso D'Augusto 237 , 47921 Rimini , Italy
| | - Rosa Durán-Patrón
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias , Universidad de Cádiz , Campus Universitario Río San Pedro s/n, Torre sur, 4a planta, 11510 , Puerto Real , Cádiz , Spain
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45
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Ozone detoxification of patulin in aqueous solution and cytotoxic evaluation using human hepatic carcinoma cells. Toxicon 2018; 155:21-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 10/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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46
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Zhong L, Carere J, Lu Z, Lu F, Zhou T. Patulin in Apples and Apple-Based Food Products: The Burdens and the Mitigation Strategies. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E475. [PMID: 30445713 PMCID: PMC6267208 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10110475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Revised: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Apples and apple-based products are among the most popular foods around the world for their delightful flavors and health benefits. However, the commonly found mold, Penicillium expansum invades wounded apples, causing the blue mold decay and ensuing the production of patulin, a mycotoxin that negatively affects human health. Patulin contamination in apple products has been a worldwide problem without a satisfactory solution yet. A comprehensive understanding of the factors and challenges associated with patulin accumulation in apples is essential for finding such a solution. This review will discuss the effects of the pathogenicity of Penicillium species, quality traits of apple cultivars, and environmental conditions on the severity of apple blue mold and patulin contamination. Moreover, beyond the complicated interactions of the three aforementioned factors, patulin control is also challenged by the lack of reliable detection methods in food matrices, as well as unclear degradation mechanisms and limited knowledge about the toxicities of the metabolites resulting from the degradations. As apple-based products are mainly produced with stored apples, pre- and post-harvest strategies are equally important for patulin mitigation. Before storage, disease-resistance breeding, orchard-management, and elicitor(s) application help control the patulin level by improving the storage qualities of apples and lowering fruit rot severity. From storage to processing, patulin mitigation strategies could benefit from the optimization of apple storage conditions, the elimination of rotten apples, and the safe and effective detoxification or biodegradation of patulin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Zhong
- College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 210095, China.
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada.
| | - Jason Carere
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada.
| | - Zhaoxin Lu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Fengxia Lu
- College of Food Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, 1 Weigang, Xuanwu District, Nanjing 210095, China.
| | - Ting Zhou
- Guelph Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, ON N1G 5C9, Canada.
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Diao E, Hou H, Hu W, Dong H, Li X. Removing and detoxifying methods of patulin: A review. Trends Food Sci Technol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2018.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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48
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Fermentative degradation of Patulin by Saccharomyces cerevisiae in aqueous solution. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2018.07.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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49
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Ostry V, Malir F, Cumova M, Kyrova V, Toman J, Grosse Y, Pospichalova M, Ruprich J. Investigation of patulin and citrinin in grape must and wine from grapes naturally contaminated by strains of Penicillium expansum. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 118:805-811. [PMID: 29908267 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.06.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Twenty three strains of Penicillium expansum, as a predominant species, were isolated from 23 (92%) out of 25 grape samples of 17 different grape varieties. The results of the identification of P. expansum strains were confirmed by a PCR method. Most of the isolates of P. expansum (21/23, 91%), when tested for toxigenicity, were bi-toxigenic: they produced citrinin (CIT) and particularly high amounts of patulin (PAT). A validated UPLC-MS/MS method for the determination of PAT and CIT was applied. The limits of quantification (LOQ) for PAT and CIT in grape must and toxigenicity testing samples were 100 and 2 ng/g, respectively. The results of PAT and CIT quantification in 23 grape must samples demonstrated the occurrence of PAT in 10 (43%) grape must samples (mean: 171 ng/g; median: 50 ng/g; and range: 143-644 ng/g) and the occurrence of CIT in two (9%) grape must samples (mean: 1 ng/g; median: 1 ng/g; and range: 2.5-3.5 ng/g). This is the first report on the natural occurrence of CIT in grape must. A validated HPLC-UV-VIS method for the determination of PAT in wine samples was applied, and concentrations in all 23 wine samples were below the LOQ (<10 ng/g).
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Ostry
- Center for Health, Nutrition and Food, National Institute of Public Health in Prague, Palackeho 3a, CZ - 61242, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Frantisek Malir
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ - 50003, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Martina Cumova
- Central Institute for Supervising and Testing in Agriculture, Hroznova 65/2, CZ - 65606, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Veronika Kyrova
- Center for Health, Nutrition and Food, National Institute of Public Health in Prague, Palackeho 3a, CZ - 61242, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jakub Toman
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Rokitanskeho 62, CZ - 50003, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
| | - Yann Grosse
- International Agency for Research on Cancer, 150 Cours Albert Thomas, 69372, Lyon CEDEX 08, France
| | - Marketa Pospichalova
- Central Institute for Supervising and Testing in Agriculture, Hroznova 65/2, CZ - 65606, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Ruprich
- Center for Health, Nutrition and Food, National Institute of Public Health in Prague, Palackeho 3a, CZ - 61242, Brno, Czech Republic
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50
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Le TH, Alassane-Kpembi I, Oswald IP, Pinton P. Analysis of the interactions between environmental and food contaminants, cadmium and deoxynivalenol, in different target organs. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 622-623:841-848. [PMID: 29223910 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Revised: 11/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Cadmium (Cd), a common and widespread toxic heavy metal, and mycotoxins such as deoxynivalenol (DON) are frequent contaminants of the food supply. Most of the data on their toxicity concern their effects when present alone. However, consumers can be exposed to a cocktail of DON and Cd. To improve the understanding of their combined toxicity, the effects of DON and Cd alone or in combination were investigated in different human cell lines from the kidney (HEK-293), intestine (Caco-2), blood (HL-60) and liver (HepG2). Cytotoxicity was assessed through ATP measurement and types of interactions determined by the Isobologram-Combination index method. HEK-293 cells were exposed to increasing doses of DON, Cd and their combination at different ratios (DON/Cd of 2/1; 1/1; 1/2 and 1/8). Regardless of the ratio, the type of interaction observed in HEK-293 cells ranged from moderate antagonism to nearly additive with increasing cytotoxicity. In Caco-2 cells, the interactions ranged from nearly additive to antagonism whatever the ratio. At ratio 1/1, in HL-60 and HepG2 cells, interactions ranged from synergy to antagonism depending on the cytotoxicity level. Using human cells lines, this study indicates that the consequences of combined exposure to environmental and food contaminants are specific to the target organ. Further studies are needed to confirm these data in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thanh-Huong Le
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 180 chemin de Tournefeuille, 31027 Toulouse cedex 3, France
| | - Imourana Alassane-Kpembi
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 180 chemin de Tournefeuille, 31027 Toulouse cedex 3, France; Hôpital d'Instruction des Armées, Camp Guézo, 01BP517 Cotonou, Bénin
| | - Isabelle P Oswald
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 180 chemin de Tournefeuille, 31027 Toulouse cedex 3, France.
| | - Philippe Pinton
- Toxalim (Research Centre in Food Toxicology), Université de Toulouse, INRA, ENVT, INP-Purpan, UPS, 180 chemin de Tournefeuille, 31027 Toulouse cedex 3, France
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