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Kuijpers R, Groen BE, Smulders E, der Sanden MWGNV, Weerdesteyn V. Is the Walking Adaptability Ladder test for Kids (WAL-K) reliable and valid in ambulatory children with Cerebral Palsy? Disabil Rehabil 2024:1-7. [PMID: 38400694 DOI: 10.1080/09638288.2024.2321325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE Walking adaptability is essential for children to participate in daily life. We studied whether the Walking Adaptability Ladder test for Kids (WAL-K) is reliable and valid for assessing walking adaptability in 6-12 year old ambulatory children with Cerebral Palsy (CP). MATERIALS AND METHODS Thirty-six children with CP (26 GMFCS-level I, 10 GMFCS-level II) completed the single and double run of the WAL-K. Intra- and inter-rater reliability were determined by Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICCs). Construct validity was determined by comparing WAL-K scores between 122 typically developing (TD) and CP children taking age into account, comparing WAL-K scores between CP children in GMFCS-levels I and II, and correlating WAL-K scores with scores of the 10 times 5 m Sprint Test (10 × 5mST). RESULTS ICCs for reliability varied between 0.997 and 1.000. WAL-K scores were significantly higher (i.e., worse) in CP children compared to TD children (p < 0.001), and in children in GMFCS-level II compared to GMFCS-level I (p = 0.001). Significant positive correlations were found between the WAL-K and 10 × 5 mST (single run r = .89, double run r = .84). CONCLUSIONS The WAL-K shows to be a promising reliable, valid, and easy-to-use tool for assessing walking adaptability in children with CP. Responsiveness to change has yet to be evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosanne Kuijpers
- Sint Maartenskliniek Research, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Rehabilitation, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Brenda E Groen
- Sint Maartenskliniek Research, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Rehabilitation, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Ellen Smulders
- Department of Rehabilitation, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Master Specialized Physical Therapy, Avans+, Breda, The Netherlands
| | - Maria W G Nijhuis-van der Sanden
- Department of Rehabilitation, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- IQ Healthcare, Research Institute for Health Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Vivian Weerdesteyn
- Sint Maartenskliniek Research, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Rehabilitation, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Sanchez C, Costa V, Garcia-Carmona R, Urendes E, Tejedor J, Raya R. Evaluation of Child-Computer Interaction Using Fitts' Law: A Comparison between a Standard Computer Mouse and a Head Mouse. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 21:3826. [PMID: 34073142 PMCID: PMC8197934 DOI: 10.3390/s21113826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This study evaluates and compares the suitability for child-computer interaction (CCI, the branch within human-computer interaction focused on interactive computer systems for children) of two devices: a standard computer mouse and the ENLAZA interface, a head mouse that measures the user's head posture using an inertial sensor. A multidirectional pointing task was used to assess the motor performance and the users' ability to learn such a task. The evaluation was based on the interpretation of the metrics derived from Fitts' law. Ten children aged between 6 and 8 participated in this study. Participants performed a series of pre- and post-training tests for both input devices. After the experiments, data were analyzed and statistically compared. The results show that Fitts' law can be used to detect changes in the learning process and assess the level of psychomotor development (by comparing the performance of adults and children). In addition, meaningful differences between the fine motor control (hand) and the gross motor control (head) were found by comparing the results of the interaction using the two devices. These findings suggest that Fitts' law metrics offer a reliable and objective way of measuring the progress of physical training or therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Sanchez
- Departamento de Tecnologías de la Información, Escuela Politécnica Superior, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, 28668 Madrid, Spain; (V.C.); (R.G.-C.); (E.U.); (J.T.); (R.R.)
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Cardoso VA, Resende RA, Aquino CF, Andrade AGP, Silva PLP, Amaral GM, Fonseca ST, Ocarino JM. A novel single-leg squat test with speed and accuracy requirements: Reliability and validity in anterior cruciate ligament reconstructed individuals. Knee 2021; 29:150-159. [PMID: 33636564 DOI: 10.1016/j.knee.2021.01.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Some traditional single-leg squat tests focused on number of repetitions may not demand precise control of lower limb dynamic alignment, especially in the frontal and transverse planes. The primary objective of this study was to evaluate test-retest reliability and construct validity of a novel single-leg squat test - the 'precision-squat test' (PST) - designed to assess performance under varying task demands that can impact the execution of lower limb movements. A secondary objective was to investigate whether musculoskeletal factors predict performance in the PST in healthy individuals. METHODS Thirty healthy participants were assessed to verify test-retest reliability. To verify the test's construct validity, we compared the performance of 21 anterior cruciate ligament reconstructed (ACLR) individuals and 21 matched controls. Finally, 36 healthy individuals were assessed to verify the musculoskeletal factors related to PST performance. All participants performed the PST: they executed single-leg squats while moving a laser pointer (attached to the thigh) between two targets. We varied target size and distance between targets to manipulate the task difficulty. RESULTS Reliability of the PST was excellent at all demand levels (intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC)(3,2) > 0.93). Squat time increased under test conditions involving higher task difficulty (P < 0.001) and in ACLR individuals compared with age-matched controls (P < 0.05). Regression analyses revealed that reduced knee extensors and hip external rotators torques are related to increased squat time (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS PST is a valid and reliable tool to assess performance of healthy and ACLR individuals. In addition, hip and knee strength are associated with performance during the test.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa A Cardoso
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Physical Education, Physical Therapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Renan A Resende
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Physical Education, Physical Therapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Cecília F Aquino
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Physical Education, Physical Therapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil; Department of Physical Therapy, Universidade José do Rosário Vellano, Campus Divinópolis, Brazil; Department of Physical Therapy, Universidade do Estado de Minas Gerais, Unidade Divinópolis, Brazil
| | - André G P Andrade
- Department of Sports, School of Physical Education, Physical Therapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Paula L P Silva
- Center for Cognition, Action, & Perception, Department of Psychology, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Giovanna M Amaral
- Biological and Health Sciences Institute, Centro Universitário de Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Sérgio T Fonseca
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Physical Education, Physical Therapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Juliana M Ocarino
- Department of Physical Therapy, School of Physical Education, Physical Therapy and Occupational Therapy, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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da Silva TD, Ribeiro-Papa DC, Coe S, Malheiros SRP, Massetti T, Meira Junior CDM, Nicolai Ré AH, Collett J, Monteiro CBDM, Dawes H. Evaluation of speed-accuracy trade-off in a computer task to identify motor difficulties in individuals with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy - A cross-sectional study. RESEARCH IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2020; 96:103541. [PMID: 31830680 DOI: 10.1016/j.ridd.2019.103541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Individuals with Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) present with progressive loss of motor function which can impair both control of speed and accuracy of movement. AIM to evaluate movement time during a task at various levels of difficulty and to verify whether the level of difficulty affects the speed and/ or accuracy during the task. METHODS the DMD group comprised of 17 individuals age matched with 17 individuals with typical development (TD group). The task evaluates the relationship between speed and accuracy, consisting of the execution of manual movements (using the mouse of the computer) aimed at a target at three different levels of difficulty (ID). RESULTS A MANOVA demonstrated statistically significant differences in dispersion data and intercept values between the groups with greater movement time in the DMD group. An ANOVA indicated differences between groups for ID, except for when there was a higher accuracy demand (higher ID). In the other IDs that required lower accuracy demand, individuals in the DMD group had significantly longer movement time when compared to the TD group. CONCLUSION These results show that the TD and DMD did not differ in the higher ID, therefore it can be concluded that for those with DMD, motor performance is more affected by speed than accuracy of movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talita Dias da Silva
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Reabilitação, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Rua Cipotânea, 51 Cidade Universitária CEP, 05360-000, São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Departamento de Cardiologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Sena Madureira, 1500, Vila Clementino, CEP: 04021-001, São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Centre for Movement, Occupational and Rehabilitation Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, OX3 0BP, United Kingdom.
| | - Denise Cardoso Ribeiro-Papa
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Reabilitação, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Rua Cipotânea, 51 Cidade Universitária CEP, 05360-000, São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Departamento de Cardiologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, Rua Sena Madureira, 1500, Vila Clementino, CEP: 04021-001, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Shelly Coe
- Centre for Movement, Occupational and Rehabilitation Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Silvia Regina Pinheiro Malheiros
- Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades da Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Arlindo Béttio, 1000 - Ermelino Matarazzo CEP, 03828-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Thais Massetti
- Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades da Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Arlindo Béttio, 1000 - Ermelino Matarazzo CEP, 03828-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Cassio de Miranda Meira Junior
- Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades da Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Arlindo Béttio, 1000 - Ermelino Matarazzo CEP, 03828-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Alessandro Hervaldo Nicolai Ré
- Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades da Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Arlindo Béttio, 1000 - Ermelino Matarazzo CEP, 03828-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Johnny Collett
- Centre for Movement, Occupational and Rehabilitation Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, OX3 0BP, United Kingdom
| | - Carlos Bandeira de Mello Monteiro
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências da Reabilitação, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Rua Cipotânea, 51 Cidade Universitária CEP, 05360-000, São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Centre for Movement, Occupational and Rehabilitation Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, OX3 0BP, United Kingdom; Escola de Artes, Ciências e Humanidades da Universidade de São Paulo, Av. Arlindo Béttio, 1000 - Ermelino Matarazzo CEP, 03828-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Helen Dawes
- Centre for Movement, Occupational and Rehabilitation Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, OX3 0BP, United Kingdom; Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Bertucco M, Sanger TD. A Model to Estimate the Optimal Layout for Assistive Communication Touchscreen Devices in Children With Dyskinetic Cerebral Palsy. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2019; 26:1371-1380. [PMID: 29985146 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2018.2840445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Excess involuntary movements and slowness of movement in children with dyskinetic cerebral palsy often result in the inability to properly interact with augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) devices. This significantly limits communication. It is, therefore, essential to know how to adjust the device layout in order to maximize each child's rate of communication. The aim of this paper was to develop a mathematical model to estimate the information rate in children with dyskinetic cerebral palsy and to determine the optimal AAC layout for a touchscreen tablet that results in enhanced speed of communication. The model predicts information rate based on button size, number, spacing between buttons, and the probability of making an error or missing target buttons. Estimation of the information rate confirmed our hypothesis of lower channel capacity in children with dyskinetic cerebral palsy compared with age-matched healthy children. Information rate increased when the AAC layout was customized based on the optimal parameters predicted by the model. In conclusion, this paper quantifies the effect of motor impairments on communication with assistive communication devices and shows that communication performance can be improved by optimally matching the parameters of the AAC touchscreen device to the abilities of the child.
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Groen BE, Altmann VC, Verhagen RW, Vanlandewijck YC, Keijsers NL. Fitts' Law is Applicable to Trunk Coordination Measurements in a Sitting Position. J Mot Behav 2018; 51:43-48. [DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2017.1415199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brenda E. Groen
- Sint Maartenskliniek Research, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Radboud University Medical Center,Donders Institute for Brain,Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Rehabilitation, The Netherlands
| | - Viola C. Altmann
- Sint Maartenskliniek, Department of Rehabilitation, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Noël L.W. Keijsers
- Sint Maartenskliniek Research, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Radboud University Medical Center,Donders Institute for Brain,Cognition and Behaviour, Department of Rehabilitation, The Netherlands
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Fernani DCGL, Prado MTA, da Silva TD, Massetti T, de Abreu LC, Magalhães FH, Dawes H, de Mello Monteiro CB. Evaluation of speed-accuracy trade-off in a computer task in individuals with cerebral palsy: a cross-sectional study. BMC Neurol 2017; 17:143. [PMID: 28750603 PMCID: PMC5530971 DOI: 10.1186/s12883-017-0920-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Individuals with Cerebral Palsy (CP) present with sensorimotor dysfunction which make the control and execution of movements difficult. This study aimed to verify the speed-accuracy trade-off in individuals with CP. METHODS Forty eight individuals with CP and 48 with typical development (TD) were evaluated (32 females and 64 males with a mean age of 15.02 ± 6.37 years: minimum 7 and maximum 30 years). Participants performed the "Fitts' Reciprocal Aiming Task v.1.0 (Horizontal)" on a computer with different sizes and distance targets, composed by progressive indices of difficulty (IDs): ID2, ID4a and ID4b. RESULTS There were no statistical differences between the groups in relation to the slope of the curve (b1) and dispersion of the movement time (r2). However, the intercept (b0) values presented significant differences (F(1.95) = 11.3; p = .001]), with greater movement time in the CP group compared to the TD group. It means that for individuals with CP, regardless of index difficulty, found the task more difficult than for TD participants. Considering CP and TD groups, speed-accuracy trade-off was found when using different indices of difficulty (ID2 and ID4). However, when the same index of difficulty was used with a larger target and longer distance (ID4a) or with a narrow target and shorter distance (ID4b), only individuals with CP had more difficulty performing the tasks involving smaller targets. Marginally significant inverse correlations were identified between the values of b1 and age (r = -0.119, p = .052) and between r2 and Gross Motor Function Classification System (r = -0.280, p = .054), which did not occur with the Manual Ability Classification System. CONCLUSION We conclude that the individuals with CP presented greater difficulty when the target was smaller and demanded more accuracy, and less difficulty when the task demanded speed. It is suggested that treatments should target tasks with accuracy demands, that could help in daily life tasks, since it is an element that is generally not considered by professionals during therapy. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03002285 , retrospectively registered on 20 Dec 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Cristina Gonçalves Luiz Fernani
- University of West Paulista, Presidente Prudente, SP, Brazil. .,Laboratory Design and Scientific Writing Department of Basic Sciences, ABC Faculty of Medicine, Av. Príncipe de Gales, 821, Vila Principe de Gales, Santo André, SP, 09060-650, Brazil.
| | - Maria Tereza Artero Prado
- University of West Paulista, Presidente Prudente, SP, Brazil.,Laboratory Design and Scientific Writing Department of Basic Sciences, ABC Faculty of Medicine, Av. Príncipe de Gales, 821, Vila Principe de Gales, Santo André, SP, 09060-650, Brazil
| | - Talita Dias da Silva
- School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Thais Massetti
- Post-graduate Program in Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Luiz Carlos de Abreu
- Laboratory Design and Scientific Writing Department of Basic Sciences, ABC Faculty of Medicine, Av. Príncipe de Gales, 821, Vila Principe de Gales, Santo André, SP, 09060-650, Brazil
| | | | - Helen Dawes
- Oxford Institute of Nursing and Allied Health Research, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK.,Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Carlos Bandeira de Mello Monteiro
- Laboratory Design and Scientific Writing Department of Basic Sciences, ABC Faculty of Medicine, Av. Príncipe de Gales, 821, Vila Principe de Gales, Santo André, SP, 09060-650, Brazil.,School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.,Post-graduate Program in Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Perceived Cost and Intrinsic Motor Variability Modulate the Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0139988. [PMID: 26447874 PMCID: PMC4598106 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0139988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Fitts’ Law describes the speed-accuracy trade-off of human movements, and it is an elegant strategy that compensates for random and uncontrollable noise in the motor system. The control strategy during targeted movements may also take into account the rewards or costs of any outcomes that may occur. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that movement time in Fitts’ Law emerges not only from the accuracy constraints of the task, but also depends on the perceived cost of error for missing the targets. Subjects were asked to touch targets on an iPad® screen with different costs for missed targets. We manipulated the probability of error by comparing children with dystonia (who are characterized by increased intrinsic motor variability) to typically developing children. The results show a strong effect of the cost of error on the Fitts’ Law relationship characterized by an increase in movement time as cost increased. In addition, we observed a greater sensitivity to increased cost for children with dystonia, and this behavior appears to minimize the average cost. The findings support a proposed mathematical model that explains how movement time in a Fitts-like task is related to perceived risk.
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Lunardini F, Bertucco M, Casellato C, Bhanpuri N, Pedrocchi A, Sanger TD. Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off in a Trajectory-Constrained Self-Feeding Task: A Quantitative Index of Unsuppressed Motor Noise in Children With Dystonia. J Child Neurol 2015; 30:1676-85. [PMID: 25895910 PMCID: PMC4575821 DOI: 10.1177/0883073815578526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Motor speed and accuracy are both affected in childhood dystonia. Thus, deriving a speed-accuracy function is an important metric for assessing motor impairments in dystonia. Previous work in dystonia studied the speed-accuracy trade-off during point-to-point tasks. To achieve a more relevant measurement of functional abilities in dystonia, the present study investigates upper-limb kinematics and electromyographic activity of 8 children with dystonia and 8 healthy children during a trajectory-constrained child-relevant task that emulates self-feeding with a spoon and requires continuous monitoring of accuracy. The speed-accuracy trade-off is examined by changing the spoon size to create different accuracy demands. Results demonstrate that the trajectory-constrained speed-accuracy relation is present in both groups, but it is altered in dystonia in terms of increased slope and offset toward longer movement times. Findings are consistent with the hypothesis of increased signal-dependent noise in dystonia, which may partially explain the slow and variable movements observed in dystonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Lunardini
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, NearLab, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, 20133, Italy
| | - Matteo Bertucco
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089-1111, USA
| | - Claudia Casellato
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, NearLab, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, 20133, Italy
| | - Nasir Bhanpuri
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089-1111, USA
| | - Alessandra Pedrocchi
- Department of Electronics, Information and Bioengineering, NearLab, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, 20133, Italy
| | - Terence D. Sanger
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089-1111, USA,Department of Child Neurology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089-1111, USA,Department of Biokinesiology & Physical Therapy, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, 90089-1111, USA,Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90027, USA
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A Kinect-Based System for Lower Limb Rehabilitation in Parkinson's Disease Patients: a Pilot Study. J Med Syst 2015; 39:103. [PMID: 26265237 DOI: 10.1007/s10916-015-0289-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
This work brings together the emerging virtual reality techniques and the natural user interfaces to offer new possibilities in the field of rehabilitation. We have designed a rehabilitation game based on a low cost device (Microsoft Kinect(TM)) connected to a personal computer. It provides patients having Parkinson's Disease (PD) with a motivating way to perform several motor rehabilitation exercises to improve their rehabilitation. The experiment was tested on seven Parkinson's Disease patients and results demonstrated significant improvements in completion time score and in the 10 Meters Walk Test score. Nevertheless, additional research is needed to determine if this type of training has a long-term impact. Both the device and protocol were well accepted by subjects, being safe and easy to use. We conclude that our work provides a simple and suitable tool resulting in a more enriching rehabilitation process where motivation is highly encouraged in PD patients. Feedback coming from participants corroborate the hypothesis that the system can be applied not only in clinical rehabilitation centers but at home.
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Deuble RL, Connick MJ, Beckman EM, Abernethy B, Tweedy SM. Using Fitts' Law to Detect Intentional Misrepresentation. J Mot Behav 2015; 48:164-71. [DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2015.1058744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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12
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Figueiredo PRP, Silva PL, Avelar BS, da Fonseca ST, Bootsma RJ, Mancini MC. Upper limb performance and the structuring of joint movement in teenagers with cerebral palsy: the reciprocal role of task demands and action capabilities. Exp Brain Res 2015; 233:1155-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-014-4195-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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13
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Almanji A, Payne AR, Amor R, Davies TC. A Nonlinear Model for Mouse Pointing Task Movement Time Analysis Based on Both System and Human Effects. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2014; 23:1003-11. [PMID: 25532208 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2014.2377692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
This paper provides a detailed model for analyzing movement time performance during rapid goal-directed point- and-click motions with a computer mouse. Twelve typically developed individuals and eleven youths with cerebral palsy conducted point and click computer tasks from which the model was developed. The proposed model is nonlinear and based on both system (target width and movement amplitude) and human effects (erroneous clicks, number of submovements, number of slip-offs, curvature index, and average speed). To ensure successful targeting by youths with cerebral palsy, the index of difficulty was limited to a range of 1.58 - 3.0 bits. For consistency, the same range was used with both groups. The most significant contributing human effect to movement time was found to be the curvature index for both typically developed individuals and individuals with cerebral palsy. This model will assist in algorithm development to improve cursor speed and accuracy for youths with cerebral palsy.
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Davies TC, AlManji A, Stott NS. A cross-sectional study examining computer task completion by adolescents with cerebral palsy across the Manual Ability Classification System levels. Dev Med Child Neurol 2014; 56:1180-1186. [PMID: 24954105 DOI: 10.1111/dmcn.12521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
AIM The aim of this study was to analyze the cursor trajectories of adolescents with cerebral palsy (CP) when using a mouse for point-and-click computer tasks. By identifying some of the factors limiting cursor movement and gaining a better understanding of human movement, it will be possible to design more accessible computer interfaces. METHOD This study evaluated cursor trajectories of 29 individuals with bilateral CP who had different levels of upper limb function as measured by the Manual Ability Classification System, and compared the results with those of 12 adolescents with typical development. RESULTS Among adolescents with typical development, movement time increases linearly as the index of difficulty increases (Fitts' law); however, this linearity was not apparent in adolescents with bilateral CP. INTERPRETATION Interfaces for members of the population are designed around Fitts' law, with low precision requirements at indices of difficulty lower than 4. We found that interactive displays for adolescents with CP should be limited to an index of difficulty of 2.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Claire Davies
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Amur AlManji
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - N Susan Stott
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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15
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Bertucco M, Sanger TD. Speed-accuracy testing on the Apple iPad provides a quantitative test of upper extremity motor performance in children with dystonia. J Child Neurol 2014; 29:1460-6. [PMID: 23965400 PMCID: PMC5754271 DOI: 10.1177/0883073813494265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The currently available scales for quantitative measurement of the severity of childhood dystonia require human observer ratings and provide poor granularity in the scores for individual limbs. We evaluated the use of new-generation high-quality touchscreens (an iPad) according with the Fitts law, which is a mathematical model that takes into account the relation between movement time and the task accuracy. We compared the abilities of healthy subjects and children with dystonia. The linear relation described by Fitts law held for all the groups. The movement time and the information transmitted were age and severity related. Our results provide evidence for the usability and validity of using Fitts law as a quantitative diagnostic tool in children with dystonia. Furthermore, testing on touchscreen tablets may help to guide the design of user interfaces to maximize the communication rate for children who depend upon assistive communication devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Bertucco
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Terence D. Sanger
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Child Neurology, and Biokinesiology, University of Southern California and Children’s Hospital of Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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16
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Sandlund M, Domellöf E, Grip H, Rönnqvist L, Häger CK. Training of goal directed arm movements with motion interactive video games in children with cerebral palsy - a kinematic evaluation. Dev Neurorehabil 2014; 17:318-26. [PMID: 23863100 DOI: 10.3109/17518423.2013.776124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The main aim of this study was to evaluate the quality of goal-directed arm movements in 15 children with cerebral palsy (CP) following four weeks of home-based training with motion interactive video games. A further aim was to investigate the applicability and characteristics of kinematic parameters in a virtual context in comparison to a physical context. METHOD Kinematics and kinetics were captured while the children performed arm movements directed towards both virtual and physical targets. RESULTS The children's movement precision improved, their centre of pressure paths decreased, as did the variability in maximal shoulder angles when reaching for virtual objects. Transfer to a situation with physical targets was mainly indicated by increased movement smoothness. CONCLUSION Training with motion interactive games seems to improve arm motor control in children with CP. The results highlight the importance of considering both the context and the task itself when investigating kinematic parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Sandlund
- Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Umeå University , Umeå , Sweden and
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17
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Michmizos KP, Krebs HI. Pointing with the ankle: the speed-accuracy trade-off. Exp Brain Res 2013; 232:647-57. [PMID: 24271402 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-013-3773-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the trade-off between speed and accuracy in pointing movements with the ankle during goal-directed movements in dorsal-plantar (DP) and inversion-eversion (IE). Nine subjects completed a series of discrete pointing movements with the ankle between spatial targets of varying difficulty. Six different target sets were presented, with a range of task difficulty between 2.2 and 3.8 bits of information. Our results demonstrated that for visually evoked, visually guided discrete DP and IE ankle pointing movements, performance can be described by a linear function, as predicted by Fitts' law. These results support our ongoing effort to develop an adaptive algorithm employing the speed-accuracy trade-off concept to control our pediatric anklebot while delivering therapy for children with cerebral palsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantinos P Michmizos
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77, Massachusetts Ave., Cambridge, MA, USA,
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18
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Age-related changes in motor imagery from early childhood to adulthood: Probing the internal representation of speed-accuracy trade-offs. Hum Mov Sci 2013; 32:1151-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2012.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2012] [Revised: 06/27/2012] [Accepted: 06/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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19
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Chu VWT, Sternad D, Sanger TD. Healthy and dystonic children compensate for changes in motor variability. J Neurophysiol 2013; 109:2169-78. [PMID: 23343896 PMCID: PMC3628036 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00908.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2012] [Accepted: 01/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Successful reaching requires that we plan movements to compensate for variability in motor output. Previous studies have shown that healthy adults optimally incorporate estimates of motor variability when planning a pointing task. Children with dystonia have increased variability compared with healthy children. It is not known whether they are able to compensate appropriately for the increased variability and whether this compensation leads to changes in reaching behavior. We examined healthy children and those with increased motor variability due to secondary dystonia. Using a simple virtual display, children performed a motor task where the variability of their movements was manipulated. Results showed that both subject groups changed their movement strategies in response to changes in the level of perceived motor variability. Both groups changed their strategy in a way that improved performance relative to the perceived motor variability. Importantly, dystonic children faced with decreased motor variability adapted their movement strategy to perform better and more similarly to healthy children. These findings show that both healthy and dystonic children are able to respond to changes in motor variability and alter their movement strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Way Tong Chu
- Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago, 345 E Superior St., Rm. 1406, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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20
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Zimmerli L, Krewer C, Gassert R, Müller F, Riener R, Lünenburger L. Validation of a mechanism to balance exercise difficulty in robot-assisted upper-extremity rehabilitation after stroke. J Neuroeng Rehabil 2012; 9:6. [PMID: 22304989 PMCID: PMC3286404 DOI: 10.1186/1743-0003-9-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2011] [Accepted: 02/03/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The motivation of patients during robot-assisted rehabilitation after neurological disorders that lead to impairments of motor functions is of great importance. Due to the increasing number of patients, increasing medical costs and limited therapeutic resources, clinicians in the future may want patients to practice their movements at home or with reduced supervision during their stay in the clinic. Since people only engage in an activity and are motivated to practice if the outcome matches the effort at which they perform, an augmented feedback application for rehabilitation should take the cognitive and physical deficits of patients into account and incorporate a mechanism that is capable of balancing i.e. adjusting the difficulty of an exercise in an augmented feedback application to the patient's capabilities. Methods We propose a computational mechanism based on Fitts' Law that balances i.e. adjusts the difficulty of an exercise for upper-extremity rehabilitation. The proposed mechanism was implemented into an augmented feedback application consisting of three difficulty conditions (easy, balanced, hard). The task of the exercise was to reach random targets on the screen from a starting point within a specified time window. The available time was decreased with increasing condition difficulty. Ten subacute stroke patients were recruited to validate the mechanism through a study. Cognitive and motor functions of patients were assessed using the upper extremity section of the Fugl-Meyer Assessment, the modified Ashworth scale as well as the Addenbrookes cognitive examination-revised. Handedness of patients was obtained using the Edinburgh handedness inventory. Patients' performance during the execution of the exercises was measured twice, once for the paretic and once for the non-paretic arm. Results were compared using a two-way ANOVA. Post hoc analysis was performed using a Tukey HSD with a significance level of p < 0.05. Results Results show that the mechanism was capable of balancing the difficulty of an exercise to the capabilities of the patients. Medians for both arms show a gradual decrease and significant difference of the number of successful trials with increasing condition difficulty (F2;60 = 44.623; p < 0.01; η2 = 0.623) but no significant difference between paretic and non-paretic arm (F1;60 = 3.768; p = 0.057; η2 = 0.065). Post hoc analysis revealed that, for both arms, the hard condition significantly differed from the easy condition (p < 0.01). In the non-paretic arm there was an additional significant difference between the balanced and the hard condition (p < 0.01). Reducing the time to reach the target, i.e., increasing the difficulty level, additionally revealed significant differences between conditions for movement speeds (F2;59 = 6.013; p < 0.01; η2 = 0.185), without significant differences for hand-closing time (F2;59 = 2.620; p = 0.082; η2 = 0.09), reaction time (F2;59 = 0.978; p = 0.383; η2 = 0.036) and hand-path ratio (F2;59 = 0.054; p = 0.947; η2 = 0.002). The evaluation of a questionnaire further supported the assumption that perceived performance declined with increased effort and increased exercise difficulty leads to frustration. Conclusions Our results support that Fitts' Law indeed constitutes a powerful mechanism for task difficulty adaptation and can be incorporated into exercises for upper-extremity rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Zimmerli
- Sensory-Motor Systems Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Process Engineering, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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21
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Pinheiro CG, Naves ELM, Pino P, Losson E, Andrade AO, Bourhis G. Alternative communication systems for people with severe motor disabilities: a survey. Biomed Eng Online 2011; 10:31. [PMID: 21507236 PMCID: PMC3103465 DOI: 10.1186/1475-925x-10-31] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2010] [Accepted: 04/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
We have now sufficient evidence that using electrical biosignals in the field of Alternative and Augmented Communication is feasible. Additionally, they are particularly suitable in the case of people with severe motor impairment, e.g. people with high-level spinal cord injury or with locked-up syndrome. Developing solutions for them implies that we find ways to use sensors that fit the user's needs and limitations, which in turn impacts the specifications of the system translating the user's intentions into commands. After devising solutions for a given user or profile, the system should be evaluated with an appropriate method, allowing a comparison with other solutions. This paper submits a review of the way three bioelectrical signals--electromyographic, electrooculographic and electroencephalographic--have been utilised in alternative communication with patients suffering severe motor restrictions. It also offers a comparative study of the various methods applied to measure the performance of AAC systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos G Pinheiro
- Laboratoire d'Automatique humaine et de Sciences Comportementales, Université de Metz, Bâtiment ISEA, 7 rue Marconi, 57070 METZ Technopôle, France.
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22
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Simmons RW, Madra NJ, Levy SS, Riley EP, Mattson SN. Co-regulation of movement speed and accuracy by children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Percept Mot Skills 2011; 112:172-82. [PMID: 21466090 DOI: 10.2466/04.10.13.pms.112.1.172-182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The study investigated how children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure regulate movement speed and accuracy during goal-directed movements. 16 children ages 7 to 17 years with confirmed histories of heavy in utero alcohol exposure, and 21 nonalcohol-exposed control children completed a series of reciprocal tapping movements between two spatial targets. 5 different targets sets were presented, representing a range of task difficulty between 2 and 6 bits of information. Estimates of percent error rate, movement time, slope, and linear fit of the resulting curve confirmed that for goal-directed, reciprocal tapping responses, performance of the group with prenatal alcohol exposure was described by a linear function, as predicted by Fitts' law, by sacrificing movement accuracy. The index of performance was the same for the two groups: it initially increased, then leveled off for more difficult movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger W Simmons
- School of Exercise and Nutritional Sciences, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA.
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23
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Irwin C, Duff S, Skye J, Wiegmann D, Sesto M. Disability and Orientation-Specific Performance during a Reciprocal Tapping Task. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1177/154193121005400608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Reciprocal tapping tasks have frequently been used to quantify user performance and motor control system function. This experiment used a reciprocal tapping task to examine differences in performance for participants oriented both in front and to the side of a touch screen. Evaluating performance in different orientations for touch screen users is important because public spaces and workplaces may have barriers which preclude touch screens from always being operated from directly in front. Additionally, building design standards may require a wheelchair user in a public building to operate a touch screen from the side because there may not be enough clearance to orient their wheelchair in a manner which allows them to only operate the screen from the front. Participants with motor control impairments affecting the upper extremity and participants without upper extremity motor control impairments completed a study examining reciprocal tapping performance while using a touch screen. Both groups included wheelchair users. Results indicate the orientation of the user, with respect to the touch screen, influences the number of taps which can be completed in five seconds and the amount of force used to activate the buttons. Both variables are negatively affected when the touch screen is oriented to the side of the user. Additionally, users with motor control impairments affecting the upper extremity completed fewer taps and had longer dwell times on the buttons than participants with non-impaired upper extremities. This experiment helps us begin to understand the impact of user-interface position but more research, including more ecologically valid tasks for the user, is needed.
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Lam MY, Hodges NJ, Virji-Babul N, Latash ML. Evidence for slowing as a function of index of difficulty in young adults with Down syndrome. AMERICAN JOURNAL ON INTELLECTUAL AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES 2009; 114:411-426. [PMID: 19792057 DOI: 10.1352/1944-7558-114.6.411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Speed-accuracy trade-offs in persons with Down syndrome and typically developing controls were tested with a Fitts' task. Movement time scaled linearly with index of difficulty in both groups, and there were no accuracy differences. Persons with Down syndrome were slower than typically developing individuals. Regression analysis on movement time and index of difficulty showed a nearly two-fold higher regression coefficient and a nearly three-fold larger intercept value in the Down syndrome group. The dwell time on a target was much longer for Down syndrome persons but scaled with index of difficulty in about the same percentage for participants in both groups. Because of differences primarily related to scaling, we conclude that mechanisms of motor control are similar in Down syndrome and typically developing groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Y Lam
- University of Britist Columbia, Human Kinetics, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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25
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Influence of accuracy constraints on bimanual coordination during a goal-directed task in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Exp Brain Res 2009; 201:421-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-009-2049-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2009] [Accepted: 10/07/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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26
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Caeyenberghs K, van Roon D, Swinnen S, Smits-Engelsman B. Deficits in executed and imagined aiming performance in brain-injured children. Brain Cogn 2009; 69:154-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2008.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2008] [Revised: 07/01/2008] [Accepted: 07/01/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Abstract
Humans are able to correct an ongoing movement very quickly in response to a suddenly moving target. Such fast responses possibly bypass the motor cortex and if so, one would expect that damage to the motor cortex would not greatly affect them. A group of children with congenital spastic hemiplegia were asked to move to a target, which, in some trials, jumped to a new position. It was found that the congenital spastic hemiplegia group was not affected more by the target jumps than the typically developing children. The moving targets made adaptive movements faster instead of slower for the affected hand. It is concluded that fast-adjusting movements do not necessarily rely on the motor cortex in these children.
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28
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The line copy task for kinesthesia and internal movement representation: Application in children. Hum Mov Sci 2008; 27:682-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.humov.2008.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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29
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Wobbrock JO, Gajos KZ. Goal Crossing with Mice and Trackballs for People with Motor Impairments. ACM TRANSACTIONS ON ACCESSIBLE COMPUTING 2008. [DOI: 10.1145/1361203.1361207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Prior research shows that people with motor impairments face considerable challenges when using conventional mice and trackballs. One challenge is positioning the mouse cursor within confined target areas; another is executing a precise click without slipping. These problems can make mouse pointing in graphical user interfaces very difficult for some people. This article explores goal crossing as an alternative strategy for more accessible target acquisition. In goal crossing, targets are boundaries that are simply crossed by the mouse cursor. Thus, goal crossing avoids the two aforementioned problems. To date, however, researchers have not examined the feasibility of goal crossing for people with motor difficulties. We therefore present a study comparing area pointing and goal crossing. Our performance results indicate that although Fitts' throughput for able-bodied users is higher for area pointing than for goal crossing (4.72 vs. 3.61 bits/s), the opposite is true for users with motor impairments (2.34 vs. 2.88 bits/s). However, error rates are higher for goal crossing than for area pointing under a strict definition of crossing errors (6.23% vs. 1.94%). We also present path analyses and an examination of submovement velocity, acceleration, and jerk (the change in acceleration over time). These results show marked differences between crossing and pointing and almost categorically favor crossing. An important finding is that crossing reduces jerk for both participant groups, indicating more fluid, stable motion. To help realize the potential of goal crossing for computer access, we offer design concepts for crossing widgets that address the occlusion problem, which occurs when one crossing goal obscures another in persistent mouse-cursor interfaces. This work provides the motivation and initial steps for further exploration of goal crossing on the desktop, and may help researchers and designers to radically reshape user interfaces to provide accessible goal crossing, thereby lowering barriers to access.
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