Imaging in childhood arterial ischaemic stroke

Predictors of motor outcome after childhood arterial ischemic stroke

AIM

To identify clinical and radiological predictors of long-term motor outcome after childhood-onset arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) in the middle cerebral artery (MCA) territory.

METHOD

Medical records of 69 children (36 females, 33 males; median age at index AIS 3y 3mo, range: 1mo-16y) who presented to Great Ormond Street Hospital with first AIS in the MCA territory were reviewed retrospectively. Cases were categorized using the Childhood AIS Standardized Classification and Diagnostic Evaluation (CASCADE). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and angiography were evaluated. An Alberta Stroke Program Early Computed Tomography Score (ASPECTS) was calculated on MRI. The Recurrence and Recovery Questionnaire assessed motor outcome and was dichotomized into good/poor.

RESULTS

Eventual motor outcome was good in 49 children and poor in 20. There were no acute radiological predictors of eventual motor outcome. At follow-up, CASCADE 3A (i.e. moyamoya) and Wallerian degeneration were significantly associated with poor motor outcome. In the multivariate analysis, younger age and CASCADE 3A predicted poor motor outcome.

INTERPRETATION

In the context of recommendations regarding unproven and potentially high-risk hyperacute therapies for childhood AIS, prediction of outcome could usefully contribute to risk/benefit analysis. Unfortunately, paradigms used in adults, such as ASPECTS, are not useful in children in the acute/early subacute phase of AIS. What this paper adds Adult paradigms, such as the Alberta Stroke Program Early Computed Tomography Score system, are not useful for predicting outcome in children. Younger children tend to have a poorer long-term prognosis than older children. Moyamoya is associated with poor prognosis.

Predictors of Neurological Outcome of Arterial Ischemic Stroke in Children

Stroke is an important cause of mortality and morbidity in children. The aim of the study was to evaluate long-term neurological outcome in children with arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) and explore predictive factors that affect poor outcome. Fifty-six patients aged between 1 month and 17 years who were treated at M. Iashvili Children's Central Hospital, Tbilisi, Georgia, with an onset of stroke from 2007 to 2017 were included. To explore predictive factors of outcome, the following data were collected: demographic characteristics, risk factors, he presenting signs, radiological features, and presence of stroke recurrence. Neurological status at discharge and long-term neurological outcome at least 1 year after stroke was evaluated according to Pediatric Stroke Outcome Measure subscale. The reported outcome after childhood stroke was variable with long-term neurological deficits in one-third of patients (30.4%). The neurological outcome was worse in males, in patients with multiple stroke episodes, and in those with infarctions involving a combination of cortical and subcortical areas. Pediatric AIS carries the risk of long-term morbidity, and neuroimaging has a predictive influence on outcome.

ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Cerebrovascular Disease-Child

Stroke is an uncommon but an important and under-recognized cause of morbidity and mortality in children. Strokes may be due to either brain ischemia or intracranial hemorrhage. Common symptoms of pediatric acute stroke include headache, vomiting, focal weakness, numbness, visual disturbance, seizures, and altered consciousness. Most children presenting with an acute neurologic deficit do not have an acute stroke, but have symptoms due to stroke mimics which include complicated migraine, seizures with postictal paralysis, and Bell palsy. Because of frequency of stroke mimics, in children and the common lack of specificity in symptoms, the diagnosis of a true stroke may be delayed. There are a relatively large number of potential causes of stroke mimic and true stroke. Consequently, imaging plays a critical role in the assessment of children with possible stroke and especially in children who present with acute onset of stroke symptoms. The American College of Radiology Appropriateness Criteria are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed annually by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and revision include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer reviewed journals and the application of well-established methodologies (RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation or GRADE) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures for specific clinical scenarios. In those instances where evidence is lacking or equivocal, expert opinion may supplement the available evidence to recommend imaging or treatment.

Stroke in Acquired and Congenital Heart Disease Patients and Its Relationship to Hospital Mortality and Lasting Neurologic Deficits

OBJECTIVE

To describe strokes in patients with acquired or congenital heart disease and investigate risk factors for in-hospital mortality and ongoing neurologic deficits.

DESIGN

Single-center, retrospective review of cardiac, neurologic, and radiologic patient databases.

SETTING

Tertiary care children's hospital.

PATIENTS

All patients with acquired or congenital heart disease admitted from January 2010 to October 2014 identified with stroke.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Eighty-four stroke events were identified in 83 patients (median age, 5.9 mo; interquartile range, 0.8-33.4). Thirty-two patients (38%) had single ventricle congenital heart disease. Eight patients (9%) presented with symptoms at home, and the remainder was diagnosed while already admitted to the hospital. Forty patients (48%) presented with clinically evident neurologic deficits (e.g., weakness, seizures). Fifty-eight patients (69%) had arterial ischemic strokes, and 13 (15%) had parenchymal hemorrhages. At diagnosis, 54 patients (64%) were on inotropes. Twenty-nine patients (35%) had greater than or equal to 3 cardiac procedures during their hospitalization before stroke diagnosis. In-hospital mortality occurred in 28 patients (33%). Under multivariate analysis, inotropes, number of cardiac procedures, lack of seizure, and parenchymal hemorrhage were independently associated with in-hospital mortality (p < 0.05). Fifty-four percent of survivors with neurologic follow-up had ongoing neurologic deficits attributable to strokes (median follow-up, 15.3 mo; interquartile range, 7.0-29.9). With multivariate analysis, longer hospital stay (p = 0.02) was independently associated with ongoing deficits.

CONCLUSIONS

A majority of patients with acquired or congenital heart disease who suffer stroke present while hospitalized and without focal neurologic findings. In-hospital mortality is associated with inotropes, cardiac procedures, lack of seizure, and parenchymal hemorrhage. The majority of survivors have lasting neurologic deficits associated with longer hospital stay.

Vascular disease

The child presenting with possible sentinel transient ischemic event or stroke requires prompt diagnosis so that strategies to limit injury and prevent recurrent stroke can be instituted. Cerebral arteriopathy is a potent risk factor for arterial ischemic stroke in childhood. Though acute imaging study in the setting of possible stroke is often a head computed tomography, when possible magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is recommended as the first-line study as confirmation and imaging evaluation of ischemic stroke will typically require MRI. The MRI scanning approach should include diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) early in the sequence order, since normal DWI excludes acute infarct with rare exception. In most cases, arterial imaging with time-of-flight (TOF) magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is warranted. Dedicated MRA may not be possible in the acute setting, but should be pursued as promptly as possible, particularly in the child with findings and history suggestive of arteriopathy, given the high risk of recurrent stroke in these children. MRA can overestimate the degree of arterial compromise due to complex/turbulent flow, and be insensitive to subtle vessel irregularity due to resolution and complex flow. In cases with high imaging suspicion for dissection despite normal MRA findings, catheter angiogram is indicated. A thoughtful, stepwise approach to arterial neuroimaging is critical to optimize diagnosis, treatment, and primary and secondary prevention of childhood stroke.

A pictorial review of imaging in paediatric stroke

Stroke is recognised as an important disease in adults. Paediatric stroke is less understood, yet still an important cause of morbidity and mortality, with an incidence of 5 per 100 000 children and is one of the top 10 leading causes of death in children. In adults the vast majority of strokes are ischaemic, whereas in children haemorrhage makes up half the cases. The incidence of neonatal stroke is much higher, at up to 45 per 100 000 population; however, the underlying causes are less understood. This paper acts as a guide to the different causes of stroke with the key differences on imaging discussed.

Paediatric arterial ischemic stroke: acute management, recent advances and remaining issues

Stroke is a rare disease in childhood with an estimated incidence of 1-6/100.000. It has an increasingly recognised impact on child mortality along with its outcomes and effects on quality of life of patients and their families. Clinical presentation and risk factors of paediatric stroke are different to those of adults therefore it can be considered as an independent nosological entity. The relative rarity, the age-related peculiarities and the variety of manifested symptoms makes the diagnosis of paediatric stroke extremely difficult and often delayed. History and clinical examination should investigate underlying diseases or predisposing factors and should take into account the potential territoriality of neurological deficits and the spectrum of differential diagnosis of acute neurological accidents in childhood. Neuroimaging (in particular diffusion weighted magnetic resonance) is the keystone for diagnosis of paediatric stroke and other investigations might be considered according to the clinical condition. Despite substantial advances in paediatric stroke research and clinical care, many unanswered questions remain concerning both its acute treatment and its secondary prevention and rehabilitation so that treatment recommendations are mainly extrapolated from studies on adult population. We have tried to summarize the pathophysiological and clinical characteristics of arterial ischemic stroke in children and the most recent international guidelines and practical directions on how to recognise and manage it in paediatric emergency.

Childhood stroke: results of 130 children from a reference center in Central Anatolia, Turkey

BACKGROUND

Although stroke among children is rare, it can cause significant morbidity and mortality. We aim to share our experience of children with arterial ischemic stroke.

METHODS

The initial symptoms, demographical features, risk factors, neurological examination, neuroradiological findings, and clinical follow-up data of 130 Turkish children seen between 2002 and 2013 were retrospectively analyzed.

RESULTS

Sixty-eight patients were male. Thirty of the children were aged from 1 to 12 months (seven of them died in this period). Focal neurological signs were the most common presentation, and hemiplegia or hemiparesis were the most common focal signs. Underlying risk factors were detected in 103 patients. Infections and congenital heart disease were the most common risk factors. Seven of the nine children with recurrent arterial ischemic strokes had one or more underlying diseases (moyamoya disease in two children along with factor V Leiden mutation, tuberculous meningitis, congenital heart disease, homocystinuria, and hemiconvulsion-hemiplegia-epilepsy syndrome). The arterial ischemic stroke was located in the middle cerebral circulation in 68 (36 left and 32 right) and in the posterior cerebral artery in 41. Eighteen children died. The neurological outcome was assessed in 98 children. Of these children, 66 children have neurological deficits and 52 children have seizures. Stroke in the first year of life is more often fatal. Recurrent stroke is associated with poor prognosis.

CONCLUSION

Tuberculous meningitis is still a risk factor for arterial ischemic stroke in Turkey. Arterial ischemic stroke in the first year of life and recurrent arterial ischemic stroke represent poor prognostic features.

Angiogenesis in steno-occlusive vasculopathies as a common pathway for intracranial haemorrhage. A report of six cases

Vasculopathies, including vasculitis of the central nervous system, can lead to stenosed, cicatrized vessels and the development of arterio-arteriolar collateral vessels. Bleeding due to these vascular changes, although rare, does occur. We describe six patients (all female, age range, 21-52 years; mean age, 42 years) with steno-occlusive lesions of intracranial vessels who presented with an acute intracranial haemorrhage. All had arterial steno-occlusive changes in conjunction with extensive leptomeningeal and arterio-arteriolar collaterals. Within the collaterals, focal dilatations could be identified, which were in close spatial relationship with the intracranial haemorrhage. Cause of bleeding was depicted on CT angiography in four out of six patients. One patient presented in childhood with acute stroke, one patient was diagnosed with Buerger's disease and one with sickle cell disease; the other three patients had no relevant history and the exact cause remained unclear. Outcome was favourable in all patients. Despite focal vascular weaknesses, no recurrent haemorrhage was seen during follow-up, supporting, at least in this small patient group, a conservative wait-and-see policy.

Pediatric cerebral stroke: susceptibility-weighted imaging may predict post-ischemic malignant edema

Susceptibility-weighted imaging (SWI) is an advanced MRI technique providing information on the blood oxygenation level. Deoxyhemoglobin is increased in hypoperfused tissue characterized by SWI-hypointensity, while high oxyhemoglobin concentration within hyperperfused tissue results in a SWI iso- or hyperintensity compared to healthy brain tissue. We describe a child with a stroke, where SWI in addition to excluding hemorrhage and delineating the thrombus proved invaluable in determining regions of hyperperfusion or luxury perfusion, which contributed further to the prognosis including an increased risk of developing post-ischemic malignant edema.

Identification of fetal precentral gyrus on diffusion weighted MRI

To investigate the association of the diffusion-weighted MR imaging characteristics of fetal preCG and gestational age. Forty-four fetuses with normal brain MRI findings were included in the study. Gestational ages ranged from 18 to 36 weeks (mean 25.2 weeks). All exams were performed with a 1.5-T scanner using a body array coil during free maternal breathing without sedation. Precentral gyrus was defined as the hyperintense strip anterior to the central sulcus, on the superior section of axial brain images at the level of superior frontal cortex. The presence of preCG hyperintensity was noted as observed/subtle/not observed at different b values (500, 1000 s/mm(2)) and on apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) maps and compared to the imaging characteristics of the superior frontal cortex. Precentral gyrus was first detected at 25 weeks as a hyperintense strip on DWI and hypointense strip on ADC maps. Display of preCG b 1000 s/mm(2) images were better than b 500 s/mm(2). Between 25 and 27 weeks, in 40% of fetuses preCG was observed on one hemisphere, and it was evident bilaterally in 60% of cases. Starting from the 28th week, preCG was observed on both hemispheres in 100% of cases. Diffusion weighted imaging helps better understanding of the evolution of fetal preCG. The hyperintense preCG strip starts to appear at 25 weeks, and when interpreting fetal DWI after 28 weeks this may be a sign to be sought for in all fetuses and an indicator for normal development.

Paediatric acute basilar thrombosis successfully treated with intravenous alteplase

Acute ischaemic stroke has significant attendant morbidity and is one of the top ten causes of childhood death. It requires prompt investigation and management, however little is known about the safety and efficacy of acute thrombolytic therapies in childhood arterial ischaemic stroke. The authors report a case of a 13-year-old girl with an acute basilar thrombosis, successfully treated with intravenous recombinant tissue plasminogen activator and discuss the management of paediatric arterial ischaemic stroke.

Ischemic stroke in infants and children: practical management in emergency

Stroke is a rare disease in children, with an estimated incidence 13/100000 and a significant impact on morbidity and mortality. Clinical presentation and risk factors, present in almost half of pediatric patients, are not the same as in adults. The diagnosis of stroke in children is often delayed because signs and symptoms can be subtle and nonspecific. History and clinical examination should exclude underlying diseases or predisposing factors. Neuroimaging is crucial in defining diagnosis. Other tests might be necessary, according to the clinical picture. We present here the most recent practical directions on how to diagnose and manage arterial stroke in children, according to different international guidelines on the subject.

Diagnosing a Patent Foramen Ovale in Children

Background and Purpose—

Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) is the gold standard for the diagnosis of a patent foramen ovale in adults. In children, acoustic windows on transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) are better than in adults; thus, an invasive TEE may not be necessary. Our goal was to assess the validity of TTE with agitated saline injection for the diagnosis of a patent foramen ovale in children using TEE as the gold standard.

Methods—

Fifty consecutive pediatric patients >1 year of age referred for TEE were prospectively enrolled. Imaging included 2-dimensional, color Doppler, and agitated saline contrast injections with and without Valsalva by TTE followed by TEE. Interpreters of the TTE were blinded to TEE results. Studies were categorized as “inconclusive” if the TTE images were inadequate for definitive diagnosis by the blinded interpreter.

Results—

TTE results were considered conclusive in 43 of 50 (86%) patients. Among the 43 conclusive studies, the 2 modalities disagreed in 1 patient. TTE had a positive predictive value of 100%, negative predictive value 97%, sensitivity of 88%, and specificity of 100% for detecting a patent foramen ovale.

Conclusions—

TTE with agitated saline injection is diagnostic for the assessment of atrial septal integrity in the majority of children.