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Volpe A, Pillarsetty NVK, Lewis JS, Ponomarev V. Applications of nuclear-based imaging in gene and cell therapy: probe considerations. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2021; 20:447-458. [PMID: 33718593 PMCID: PMC7907215 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2021.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Several types of gene- and cell-based therapeutics are now emerging in the cancer immunotherapy, transplantation, and regenerative medicine landscapes. Radionuclear-based imaging can be used as a molecular imaging tool for repetitive and non-invasive visualization as well as in vivo monitoring of therapy success. In this review, we discuss the principles of nuclear-based imaging and provide a comprehensive overview of its application in gene and cell therapy. This review aims to inform investigators in the biomedical field as well as clinicians on the state of the art of nuclear imaging, from probe design to available radiopharmaceuticals and advances of direct (probe-based) and indirect (transgene-based) strategies in both preclinical and clinical settings. Notably, as the nuclear-based imaging toolbox is continuously expanding, it will be increasingly incorporated into the clinical setting where the distribution, targeting, and persistence of a new generation of therapeutics can be imaged and ultimately guide therapeutic decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Volpe
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Naga Vara Kishore Pillarsetty
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.,Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jason S Lewis
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.,Molecular Pharmacology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.,Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
| | - Vladimir Ponomarev
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.,Molecular Pharmacology Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.,Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY, USA
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Ashmore-Harris C, Iafrate M, Saleem A, Fruhwirth GO. Non-invasive Reporter Gene Imaging of Cell Therapies, including T Cells and Stem Cells. Mol Ther 2020; 28:1392-1416. [PMID: 32243834 PMCID: PMC7264441 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2020.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Revised: 02/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell therapies represent a rapidly emerging class of new therapeutics. They are intended and developed for the treatment of some of the most prevalent human diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and for regenerative medicine. Currently, they are largely developed without precise assessment of their in vivo distribution, efficacy, or survival either clinically or preclinically. However, it would be highly beneficial for both preclinical cell therapy development and subsequent clinical use to assess these parameters in situ to enable enhancements in efficacy, applicability, and safety. Molecular imaging can be exploited to track cells non-invasively on the whole-body level and can enable monitoring for prolonged periods in a manner compatible with rapidly expanding cell types. In this review, we explain how in vivo imaging can aid the development and clinical translation of cell-based therapeutics. We describe the underlying principles governing non-invasive in vivo long-term cell tracking in the preclinical and clinical settings, including available imaging technologies, reporter genes, and imaging agents as well as pitfalls related to experimental design. Our emphasis is on adoptively transferred T cell and stem cell therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candice Ashmore-Harris
- Imaging Therapy and Cancer Group, Department of Imaging Chemistry and Biology, School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London SE1 7EH, UK; Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, School of Basic and Medical Biosciences, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, UK
| | - Madeleine Iafrate
- Imaging Therapy and Cancer Group, Department of Imaging Chemistry and Biology, School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London SE1 7EH, UK
| | - Adeel Saleem
- Imaging Therapy and Cancer Group, Department of Imaging Chemistry and Biology, School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London SE1 7EH, UK; Peter Gorer Department of Immunobiology, School of Immunology and Microbial Sciences, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, UK; Department of Haematological Medicine, King's College Hospital, London SE5 9RS, UK
| | - Gilbert O Fruhwirth
- Imaging Therapy and Cancer Group, Department of Imaging Chemistry and Biology, School of Biomedical Engineering and Imaging Sciences, King's College London, London SE1 7EH, UK.
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Iafrate M, Fruhwirth GO. How Non-invasive in vivo Cell Tracking Supports the Development and Translation of Cancer Immunotherapies. Front Physiol 2020; 11:154. [PMID: 32327996 PMCID: PMC7152671 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Immunotherapy is a relatively new treatment regimen for cancer, and it is based on the modulation of the immune system to battle cancer. Immunotherapies can be classified as either molecular or cell-based immunotherapies, and both types have demonstrated promising results in a growing number of cancers. Indeed, several immunotherapies representing both classes are already approved for clinical use in oncology. While spectacular treatment successes have been reported, particularly for so-called immune checkpoint inhibitors and certain cell-based immunotherapies, they have also been accompanied by a variety of severe, sometimes life-threatening side effects. Furthermore, not all patients respond to immunotherapy. Hence, there is the need for more research to render these promising therapeutics more efficacious, more widely applicable, and safer to use. Whole-body in vivo imaging technologies that can interrogate cancers and/or immunotherapies are highly beneficial tools for immunotherapy development and translation to the clinic. In this review, we explain how in vivo imaging can aid the development of molecular and cell-based anti-cancer immunotherapies. We describe the principles of imaging host T-cells and adoptively transferred therapeutic T-cells as well as the value of traceable cancer cell models in immunotherapy development. Our emphasis is on in vivo cell tracking methodology, including important aspects and caveats specific to immunotherapies. We discuss a variety of associated experimental design aspects including parameters such as cell type, observation times/intervals, and detection sensitivity. The focus is on non-invasive 3D cell tracking on the whole-body level including aspects relevant for both preclinical experimentation and clinical translatability of the underlying methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gilbert O. Fruhwirth
- Imaging Therapy and Cancer Group, Department of Imaging Chemistry and Biology, School of Biomedical Engineering & Imaging Sciences, King’s College London, London, United Kingdom
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Abstract
Chimaeric antigen receptor (CAR) therapy is entering the mainstream for the treatment of CD19(+)cancers. As is does we learn more about resistance to therapy and the role, risks and management of toxicity. In solid tumour CAR therapy research the route to the clinic is less smooth with a wealth of challenges facing translating this, potentially hugely valuable, therapeutic option for patients. As we strive to understand our successes, and navigate the challenges, having a clear understanding of how adoptively transferred CAR-T-cells behavein vivoand in human trials is invaluable. Harnessing reporter gene imaging to enable detection and tracking of small numbers of CAR-T-cells after adoptive transfer is one way by which we can accomplish this. The compatibility of certain reporter gene systems with tracers available routinely in the clinic makes this approach highly useful for future appraisal of CAR-T-cell success in humans.
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Serganova I, Moroz E, Cohen I, Moroz M, Mane M, Zurita J, Shenker L, Ponomarev V, Blasberg R. Enhancement of PSMA-Directed CAR Adoptive Immunotherapy by PD-1/PD-L1 Blockade. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2016; 4:41-54. [PMID: 28345023 PMCID: PMC5363727 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2016.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy in hematologic malignancies has shown remarkable responses, but the same level of success has not been observed in solid tumors. A new prostate cancer model (Myc-CaP:PSMA(+)) and a second-generation anti-hPSMA human CAR T cells expressing a Click Beetle Red luciferase reporter) were used to study hPSMA targeting and assess CAR T cell trafficking and persistence by bioluminescence imaging (BLI). We investigated the antitumor efficacy of human CAR T cells targeting human prostate-specific membrane antigen (hPSMA), in the presence and absence of the target antigen; first alone and then combined with a monoclonal antibody targeting the human programmed death receptor 1 (anti-hPD1 mAb). PDL-1 expression was detected in Myc-CaP murine prostate tumors growing in immune competent FVB/N and immune-deficient SCID mice. Endogenous CD3+ T cells were restricted from the centers of Myc-CaP tumor nodules growing in FVB/N mice. Following anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) treatment, the restriction of CD3+ T cells was reversed, and a tumor-treatment response was observed. Adoptive hPSMA-CAR T cell immunotherapy was enhanced when combined with PD-1 blockade, but the treatment response was of comparatively short duration, suggesting other immune modulation mechanisms exist and restrict CAR T cell targeting, function, and persistence in hPSMA expressing Myc-CaP tumors. Interestingly, an “inverse pattern” of CAR T cell BLI intensity was observed in control and test tumors, which suggests CAR T cells undergo changes leading to a loss of signal and/or number following hPSMA-specific activation. The lower BLI signal intensity in the hPSMA test tumors (compared with controls) is due in part to a decrease in T cell mitochondrial function following T cell activation, which may limit the intensity of the ATP-dependent Luciferin-luciferase bioluminescence signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inna Serganova
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Ekaterina Moroz
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Ivan Cohen
- Gerstner Sloan Kettering Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Maxim Moroz
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Mayuresh Mane
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Juan Zurita
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Larissa Shenker
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Vladimir Ponomarev
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Ronald Blasberg
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA; Molecular Pharmacology and Chemistry Program, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY 10065, USA
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Muthu P, Chen HX, Lutz S. Redesigning human 2'-deoxycytidine kinase enantioselectivity for L-nucleoside analogues as reporters in positron emission tomography. ACS Chem Biol 2014; 9:2326-33. [PMID: 25079348 PMCID: PMC4201336 DOI: 10.1021/cb500463f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
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Recent advances in
nuclear medicine have allowed for positron emission
tomography (PET) to track transgenes in cell-based therapies using
PET reporter gene/probe pairs. A promising example for such reporter
gene/probe pairs are engineered nucleoside kinases that effectively
phosphorylate isotopically labeled nucleoside analogues. Upon expression
in target cells, the kinase facilitates the intracellular accumulation
of radionuclide monophosphate, which can be detected by PET imaging.
We have employed computational design for the semi-rational engineering
of human 2′-deoxycytidine kinase to create a reporter gene
with selectivity for l-nucleosides including l-thymidine
and 1-(2′-fluoro-5-methyl-β-l-arabinofuranosyl)
uracil. Our design strategy relied on a combination of preexisting
data from kinetic and structural studies of native kinases, as well
as two small, focused libraries of kinase variants to generate an in silico model for assessing the effects of single amino
acid changes on favorable activation of l-nucleosides over
their corresponding d-enantiomers. The approach identified
multiple amino acid positions distal to the active site that conferred
desired l-enantioselectivity. Recombination of individual
amino acid substitutions yielded orthogonal kinase variants with significantly
improved catalytic performance for unnatural l-nucleosides
but reduced activity for natural d-nucleosides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pravin Muthu
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, 1515 Dickey
Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Hannah X. Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, 1515 Dickey
Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Stefan Lutz
- Department of Chemistry, Emory University, 1515 Dickey
Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
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Andrei G, Georgala A, Topalis D, Fiten P, Aoun M, Opdenakker G, Snoeck R. Heterogeneity and Evolution of Thymidine Kinase and DNA Polymerase Mutants of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1: Implications for Antiviral Therapy. J Infect Dis 2013; 207:1295-305. [DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jit019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Aarntzen EHJG, Srinivas M, Radu CG, Punt CJA, Boerman OC, Figdor CG, Oyen WJG, de Vries IJM. In vivo imaging of therapy-induced anti-cancer immune responses in humans. Cell Mol Life Sci 2012; 70:2237-57. [PMID: 23052208 PMCID: PMC3676735 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-012-1159-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2012] [Revised: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 09/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapy aims to re-engage and revitalize the immune system in the fight against cancer. Research over the past decades has shown that the relationship between the immune system and human cancer is complex, highly dynamic, and variable between individuals. Considering the complexity, enormous effort and costs involved in optimizing immunotherapeutic approaches, clinically applicable tools to monitor therapy-induced immune responses in vivo are most warranted. However, the development of such tools is complicated by the fact that a developing immune response encompasses several body compartments, e.g., peripheral tissues, lymph nodes, lymphatic and vascular systems, as well as the tumor site itself. Moreover, the cells that comprise the immune system are not static but constantly circulate through the vascular and lymphatic system. Molecular imaging is considered the favorite candidate to fulfill this task. The progress in imaging technologies and modalities has provided a versatile toolbox to address these issues. This review focuses on the detection of therapy-induced anticancer immune responses in vivo and provides a comprehensive overview of clinically available imaging techniques as well as perspectives on future developments. In the discussion, we will focus on issues that specifically relate to imaging of the immune system and we will discuss the strengths and limitations of the current clinical imaging techniques. The last section provides future directions that we envision to be crucial for further development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik H J G Aarntzen
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Yaghoubi SS, Campbell DO, Radu CG, Czernin J. Positron emission tomography reporter genes and reporter probes: gene and cell therapy applications. Am J Cancer Res 2012; 2:374-91. [PMID: 22509201 PMCID: PMC3326723 DOI: 10.7150/thno.3677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2011] [Accepted: 02/09/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging reporter genes (IRGs) and PET reporter probes (PRPs) are amongst the most valuable tools for gene and cell therapy. PET IRGs/PRPs can be used to non-invasively monitor all aspects of the kinetics of therapeutic transgenes and cells in all types of living mammals. This technology is generalizable and can allow long-term kinetics monitoring. In gene therapy, PET IRGs/PRPs can be used for whole-body imaging of therapeutic transgene expression, monitoring variations in the magnitude of transgene expression over time. In cell or cellular gene therapy, PET IRGs/PRPs can be used for whole-body monitoring of therapeutic cell locations, quantity at all locations, survival and proliferation over time and also possibly changes in characteristics or function over time. In this review, we have classified PET IRGs/PRPs into two groups based on the source from which they were derived: human or non-human. This classification addresses the important concern of potential immunogenicity in humans, which is important for expansion of PET IRG imaging in clinical trials. We have then discussed the application of this technology in gene/cell therapy and described its use in these fields, including a summary of using PET IRGs/PRPs in gene and cell therapy clinical trials. This review concludes with a discussion of the future direction of PET IRGs/PRPs and recommends cell and gene therapists collaborate with molecular imaging experts early in their investigations to choose a PET IRG/PRP system suitable for progression into clinical trials.
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Likar Y, Zurita J, Dobrenkov K, Shenker L, Cai S, Neschadim A, Medin JA, Sadelain M, Hricak H, Ponomarev V. A new pyrimidine-specific reporter gene: a mutated human deoxycytidine kinase suitable for PET during treatment with acycloguanosine-based cytotoxic drugs. J Nucl Med 2010; 51:1395-403. [PMID: 20810757 PMCID: PMC4405132 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.109.074344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED In this article, we describe a series of new human-derived reporter genes based on human deoxycytidine kinase (dCK) suitable for clinical PET. METHODS Native dCK and its mutant reporter genes were tested in vitro and in vivo for their phosphorylation of pyrimidine- and acycloguanosine-based radiotracers including 2'-deoxy-2'-fluoroarabinofuranosylcytosine, 2'-fluoro-2'-deoxyarabinofuranosyl-5-ethyluracil (FEAU), penciclovir, and 9-[4-fluoro-3-(hydroxymethyl)butyl]guanine (FHBG) and clinically applied antiviral and anticancer drugs. RESULTS Cells transduced with dCK mutant reporter genes showed high in vitro and in vivo uptake of pyrimidine-based radiopharmaceuticals ((18)F-FEAU) comparable to that of herpes simplex virus type-1 thymidine kinase (HSV1-tk)-transduced cells. These mutants did not phosphorylate acycloguanosine-based radiotracers ((18)F-FHBG) or antiviral drugs (ganciclovir). Furthermore, the mutants displayed suicidal activation of clinically used pyrimidine-based prodrugs (cytarabine, gemcitabine). CONCLUSION The mutants of human dCK can be used as pyrimidine-specific PET reporter genes for imaging with (18)F-FEAU during treatment with acycloguanosine-based antiviral drugs. Additionally, the prosuicidal activity of these reporters with pyrimidine-based analogs will allow for the safe elimination of transduced cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yury Likar
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Juan Zurita
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Konstantin Dobrenkov
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Larissa Shenker
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Shangde Cai
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Anton Neschadim
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jeffrey A. Medin
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
- Ontario Cancer Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michel Sadelain
- Department of Medicine, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Hedvig Hricak
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
| | - Vladimir Ponomarev
- Department of Radiology, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York
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Hooker JM. Modular strategies for PET imaging agents. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2009; 14:105-11. [PMID: 19880343 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2009] [Revised: 10/01/2009] [Accepted: 10/02/2009] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, modular and simplified chemical and biological strategies have been developed for the synthesis and implementation of positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracers. New developments in bioconjugation and synthetic methodologies, in combination with advances in macromolecular delivery systems and gene-expression imaging, reflect a need to reduce radiosynthesis burden in order to accelerate imaging agent development. These new approaches, which are often mindful of existing infrastructure and available resources, are anticipated to provide a more approachable entry point for researchers interested in using PET to translate in vitro research to in vivo imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob M Hooker
- Brookhaven National Laboratory, Medical Department, Building 555, Upton, NY 11973-5000, USA.
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