1
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Stamps JA, Biro PA. Time-specific convergence and divergence in individual differences in behavior: Theory, protocols and analyzes. Ecol Evol 2023; 13:e10615. [PMID: 38034332 PMCID: PMC10682899 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.10615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2023] [Revised: 09/23/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the years, theoreticians and empiricists working in a wide range of disciplines, including physiology, ethology, psychology, and behavioral ecology, have suggested a variety of reasons why individual differences in behavior might change over time, such that different individuals become more similar (convergence) or less similar (divergence) to one another. Virtually none of these investigators have suggested that convergence or divergence will continue forever, instead proposing that these patterns will be restricted to particular periods over the course of a longer study. However, to date, few empiricists have documented time-specific convergence or divergence, in part because the experimental designs and statistical methods suitable for describing these patterns are not widely known. Here, we begin by reviewing an array of influential hypotheses that predict convergence or divergence in individual differences over timescales ranging from minutes to years, and that suggest how and why such patterns are likely to change over time (e.g., divergence followed by maintenance). Then, we describe experimental designs and statistical methods that can be used to determine if (and when) individual differences converged, diverged, or were maintained at the same level at specific periods during a longitudinal study. Finally, we describe why the concepts described herein help explain the discrepancy between what theoreticians and empiricists mean when they describe the "emergence" of individual differences or personality, how they might be used to study situations in which convergence and divergence patterns alternate over time, and how they might be used to study time-specific changes in other attributes of behavior, including individual differences in intraindividual variability (predictability), or genotypic differences in behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judy A. Stamps
- Department of Evolution and EcologyUniversity of California, DavisDavisCaliforniaUSA
| | - Peter A. Biro
- School of Life and Environmental SciencesDeakin UniversityGeelongVictoriaAustralia
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2
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van Iersel R, Boiten G, Pinxten R, Eens M. Untangling behaviours: independent expressions of female-female aggression and snake-like hissing in the blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus). Sci Rep 2023; 13:16346. [PMID: 37770619 PMCID: PMC10539291 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-43652-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Aggression plays a crucial role in deterring predators and securing resources to promote fitness. Nevertheless, studies focussing on female aggression remain scarce. In songbirds, aggression is prevalent during the breeding season, when same-sex individuals compete for limited resources. Additionally, females of some bird species exhibit snake-like hissing behaviour during incubation presumably to lower predation rates and improve fitness. Such behaviours may co-vary, forming a behavioural syndrome that could constrain trait expression. Here, we investigated a resident population of blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus), to examine the repeatability and covariation of female-female aggression and hissing behaviour, aiming to determine if these constitute a behavioural syndrome. We quantified female-female aggression during simulated territorial intrusions and measured number of hissing calls in response to a simulated predator intrusion into the nest box. We found that both female-female aggression and hissing behaviour were repeatable traits, and that older females approached the intruder less. However, we found no evidence of covariation between female-female aggression and hissing behaviour. Thus, our findings suggest that female-female aggression and hissing behaviour, although both displayed in a nest defence context, are evolutionarily independent traits in the blue tit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin van Iersel
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Gust Boiten
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Rianne Pinxten
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
- Research Group Didactica, Antwerp School of Education, University of Antwerp, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marcel Eens
- Department of Biology, Behavioural Ecology and Ecophysiology Group, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610, Antwerp, Belgium
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3
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Lou Y, Zhao Q, Hu Y, Chen L, Liu P, Fang Y, Lloyd H, Sun Y. Personality-dependent nest site selection and nest success during incubation in wild chestnut thrushes. iScience 2023; 26:107419. [PMID: 37575181 PMCID: PMC10415915 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/14/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In birds, little is known about how individuals choose nest sites based on their personality traits. Here, we investigate whether a female's personality (activity and breathing rate) can affect patterns of nest site selection at different spatial scales in a wild population of chestnut thrush (Turdus rubrocanus) and determine whether nest site characteristics and female personality traits affect clutch size and nest success during incubation. We found that neither activity nor breathing rate were associated with large-scale nesting habitat variables. At the fine-scale level, more active females chose nest sites with greater nest lateral concealment. Females with higher breathing rates laid smaller clutch sizes than individuals with lower breathing rates. Nests of females with lower breathing rate had higher nest success during incubation. This work highlights the relationships between personality and nest site selection in birds, and the important role of female personality traits in reproductive success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingqiang Lou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Qingshan Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yunbiao Hu
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Lijun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Pengfei Liu
- School of Life Sciences and Technology, Longdong University, Qingyang 745000, China
| | - Yun Fang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Huw Lloyd
- Department of Natural Sciences, Manchester Metropolitan University. Manchester M15GD, UK
| | - Yuehua Sun
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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4
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Salazar SM, Hlebowicz K, Komdeur J, Korsten P. Repeatable parental risk taking across manipulated levels of predation threat: no individual variation in plasticity. Anim Behav 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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5
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LEON EVELINA, LORENZÓN RODRIGO, OLGUÍN PAMELA, ATTADEMO ANDRES, BELTZER ADOLFO, PELTZER PAOLA. Structure and function of calls of the Masked Gnatcatcher Polioptila dumicola in Mid-eastern Argentina. AN ACAD BRAS CIENC 2022; 94:e20200442. [DOI: 10.1590/0001-3765202220200442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- EVELINA LEON
- Instituto Nacional de Limnología (INALI – CONICET – UNL), Argentina; Universidad Nacional del Litoral (FBCB-UNL-CONICET), Argentina
| | - RODRIGO LORENZÓN
- Instituto Nacional de Limnología (INALI – CONICET – UNL), Argentina
| | - PAMELA OLGUÍN
- Instituto Nacional de Limnología (INALI – CONICET – UNL), Argentina
| | - ANDRES ATTADEMO
- Universidad Nacional del Litoral (FBCB-UNL-CONICET), Argentina
| | - ADOLFO BELTZER
- Instituto Nacional de Limnología (INALI – CONICET – UNL), Argentina
| | - PAOLA PELTZER
- Universidad Nacional del Litoral (FBCB-UNL-CONICET), Argentina
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6
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Tolman D, Campobello D, Rönkä K, Kluen E, Thorogood R. Reed Warbler Hosts Do Not Fine-Tune Mobbing Defenses During the Breeding Season, Even When Cuckoos Are Rare. Front Ecol Evol 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2021.725467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hosts of brood parasitic cuckoos often employ mobbing attacks to defend their nests and, when mobbing is costly, hosts are predicted to adjust their mobbing to match parasitism risk. While evidence exists for fine-tuned plasticity, it remains unclear why mobbing does not track larger seasonal changes in parasitism risk. Here we test a possible explanation from parental investment theory: parents should defend their current brood more intensively as the opportunity to replace it declines (re-nesting potential), and therefore “counteract” any apparent seasonal decline to match parasitism risk. We take advantage of mobbing experiments conducted at two sites where reed warblers (Acrocephalus scirpaceus) experience (in Italy), or do not experience (in Finland), brood parasitism. We predicted that mobbing of cuckoos should be higher overall in Italy, but remain constant over the season as in other parasitised sites, whereas in Finland where cuckoos do not pose a local threat, we predicted that mobbing should be low at the beginning of the season but increase as re-nesting potential declined. However, while cuckoos were more likely to be mobbed in Italy, we found little evidence that mobbing changed over the season at either the parasitized or non-parasitized sites. This suggests that re-nesting potential has either little influence on mobbing behavior, or that its effects are obscured by other seasonal differences in ecology or experience of hosts.
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Frigerio D, Sumasgutner P, Kotrschal K, Kleindorfer S, Hemetsberger J. From individual to population level: Temperature and snow cover modulate fledging success through breeding phenology in greylag geese (Anser anser). Sci Rep 2021; 11:16100. [PMID: 34373490 PMCID: PMC8352867 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-95011-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Local weather conditions may be used as environmental cues by animals to optimize their breeding behaviour, and could be affected by climate change. We measured associations between climate, breeding phenology, and reproductive output in greylag geese (Anser anser) across 29 years (1990-2018). The birds are individually marked, which allows accurate long-term monitoring of life-history parameters for all pairs within the flock. We had three aims: (1) identify climate patterns at a local scale in Upper Austria, (2) measure the association between climate and greylag goose breeding phenology, and (3) measure the relationship between climate and both clutch size and fledging success. Ambient temperature increased 2 °C across the 29-years study period, and higher winter temperature was associated with earlier onset of egg-laying. Using the hatch-fledge ratio, average annual temperature was the strongest predictor for the proportion of fledged goslings per season. There is evidence for an optimum time window for egg-laying (the earliest and latest eggs laid had the lowest fledging success). These findings broaden our understanding of environmental effects and population-level shifts which could be associated with increased ambient temperature and can thus inform future research about the ecological consequences of climate changes and reproductive output in avian systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Didone Frigerio
- Konrad Lorenz Research Center, Core Facility for Behavior and Cognition, University of Vienna, Fischerau 11, 4645, Grünau im Almtal, Austria
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Petra Sumasgutner
- Konrad Lorenz Research Center, Core Facility for Behavior and Cognition, University of Vienna, Fischerau 11, 4645, Grünau im Almtal, Austria
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kurt Kotrschal
- Konrad Lorenz Research Center, Core Facility for Behavior and Cognition, University of Vienna, Fischerau 11, 4645, Grünau im Almtal, Austria
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sonia Kleindorfer
- Konrad Lorenz Research Center, Core Facility for Behavior and Cognition, University of Vienna, Fischerau 11, 4645, Grünau im Almtal, Austria.
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Adelaide, SA, Australia.
| | - Josef Hemetsberger
- Konrad Lorenz Research Center, Core Facility for Behavior and Cognition, University of Vienna, Fischerau 11, 4645, Grünau im Almtal, Austria
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090, Vienna, Austria
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8
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The serotonin transporter gene and female personality variation in a free-living passerine. Sci Rep 2021; 11:8577. [PMID: 33883685 PMCID: PMC8060275 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-88225-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Quantifying variation in behaviour-related genes provides insight into the evolutionary potential of repeatable among-individual variation in behaviour (i.e. personality). Yet, individuals typically also plastically adjust their behaviour in response to environmental conditions and/or age, thereby complicating the detection of genotype-phenotype associations. Here, using a population of free-living great tits (Parus major), we assessed the association between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the serotonin transporter gene (SERT) and two repeatable behavioural traits, i.e. female-female aggression and female hissing behaviour. For female-female aggression, a trait showing age-related plasticity, we found no evidence for associations with SERT SNPs, even when assessing potential age-dependent effects of SERT genotype on aggression. We also found no strong support for associations between SERT SNPs and hissing behaviour, yet we identified two synonymous polymorphisms (exon 13 SNP66 and exon 12 SNP144) of particular interest, each explaining about 1.3% of the total variation in hissing behaviour. Overall, our results contribute to the general understanding of the biological underpinning of complex behavioural traits and will facilitate further (meta-analytic) research on behaviour-related genes. Moreover, we emphasize that future molecular genetic studies should consider age-dependent genotype-phenotype associations for behavioural trait (co)variation, as this will vastly improve our understanding of the proximate causes and ultimate consequences of personality variation in natural populations.
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9
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Esattore B, Šlipogor V, Saggiomo L, Seltmann MW. "How not to judge a deer by its cover": A personality assessment study on captive adult red deer males (Cervus elaphus). Behav Processes 2021; 186:104361. [PMID: 33639253 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Personality is not a uniquely human characteristic and it has been documented in a wide range of organisms, from mammals to birds, reptiles, fish, and invertebrates. However, personality is still poorly understood in Cervids. Therefore, our study aimed to fill this gap by i) investigating personality and ii) exploring its links to dominance hierarchy, assessed by behavioral observations in 11 captive and tame male red deer (Cervus elaphus). Using questionnaires to assess personality, three trained volunteers rated these animals in 15 behaviorally composed adjectives with detailed descriptions, based on their overall impression at the end of the observation period. Behavioral data from animals were collected across three different situations, namely "feeding" (i.e., high competition for a scarce resource), "normal" (i.e., no external stimuli) in a group setting, and "handling" (i.e., stressful situation due to human manipulation) in an individual setting. We estimated dominance hierarchies between the individuals based on situations of average and high competition (i.e., "normal" and "feeding") via the Clutton-Brock Index (CBI). Using Fleiss' Kappa for inter-rater reliability, only five of our 15 behavioral adjectives showed acceptable reliability. Using principal component analysis, four of these adjectives formed one personality component labelled "Confidence/Aggressiveness". We found that although "Confidence/Aggressiveness" did not correlate with CBI, ratings of two adjectives loading onto this component, namely "Confident" and "Submissive", significantly correlated with the CBI, indicating that the questionnaire ratings reflect real behavioral variation in red deer males. Our study provides the first assessment of personality in male red deer and adds to the growing literature on Cervid personality, offering the basis for future personality research in ungulates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Esattore
- Department of Ethology, Institute of Animal Science, Přátelství 815, 104 00, Praha 10-Uhříněves, Czech Republic; Department of Ethology and Companion Animal Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, 165 00, Praha - Suchdol, Czech Republic.
| | - Vedrana Šlipogor
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, UZA I, 1090, Vienna, Austria; Department of Zoology, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, 370 05, Budweiss, Czech Republic
| | - Laura Saggiomo
- Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Kamýcká 129, Praha 6 - Suchdol, 165 00, Czech Republic
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10
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Thys B, Pinxten R, Eens M. Long-term repeatability and age-related plasticity of female behaviour in a free-living passerine. Anim Behav 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2020.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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11
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de Jong ME, Nicolaus M, Fokkema RW, Loonen MJJE. State dependence explains individual variation in nest defence behaviour in a long-lived bird. J Anim Ecol 2021; 90:809-819. [PMID: 33340107 PMCID: PMC8048547 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Parental care, such as nest or offspring defence, is crucial for offspring survival in many species. Yet, despite its obvious fitness benefits, the level of defence can consistently vary between individuals of the same species. One prominent adaptive explanation for consistent individual differences in behaviours involves state dependency: relatively stable differences in individual state should lead to the emergence of repeatable behavioural variation whereas changes in state should lead to a readjustment of behaviour. Therefore, empirical testing of adaptive state dependence requires longitudinal data where behaviour and state of individuals of the same population are repeatedly measured. Here, we test if variation in states predicts nest defence behaviour (a ‘risky’ behaviour) in a long‐lived species, the barnacle goose Branta leucopsis. Adaptive models have predicted that an individual's residual reproductive value or ‘asset’ is an important state variable underlying variation in risk‐taking behaviour. Hence, we investigate how nest defence varies as a function of time of the season and individual age, two state variables that can vary between and within individuals and determine asset. Repeated measures of nest defence towards a human intruder (flight initiation distance or FID) of females of known age were collected during 15 breeding seasons. Increasing values of FID represent increasing shyness. We found that females strongly and consistently differed in FID within‐ and between‐years. As predicted by theory, females adjusted their behaviour to state by decreasing their FID with season and age. Decomposing these population patterns into within‐ and between‐individual effects showed that the state‐dependent change in FID was driven by individual plasticity in FID and that bolder females were more plastic than shyer females. This study shows that nest defence behaviour differs consistently among individuals and is adjusted to individual state in a direction predicted by adaptive personality theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margje E de Jong
- Department of Behavioral and Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Arctic Centre, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marion Nicolaus
- Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Science (GELIFES), University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Rienk W Fokkema
- Arctic Centre, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
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12
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Kaiser A, Eymard M, Merckx T, Van Dyck H. Individual plasticity drives boldness senescence in a territorial butterfly. Ethology 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aurélien Kaiser
- Behavioural Ecology & Conservation Group Earth & Life Institute UCLouvain Louvain‐la‐Neuve Belgium
| | - Manon Eymard
- Behavioural Ecology & Conservation Group Earth & Life Institute UCLouvain Louvain‐la‐Neuve Belgium
| | - Thomas Merckx
- Behavioural Ecology & Conservation Group Earth & Life Institute UCLouvain Louvain‐la‐Neuve Belgium
- Department of Ecology and Genetics University of Oulu Oulu Finland
| | - Hans Van Dyck
- Behavioural Ecology & Conservation Group Earth & Life Institute UCLouvain Louvain‐la‐Neuve Belgium
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13
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Guerra S, Gomes A, Cardoso G. Long-term consistency despite cross-seasonal changes in personality traits of common waxbills. BEHAVIOUR 2020. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-bja10023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Tests of long-term consistency in personality differences are not abundant. We studied personality in common waxbills (Estrilda astrild) from one Autumn to the next, and also from Autumn to a subsequent Spring, using a behavioural assay for their proactive-reactive personality axis (mirror test) and for tonic immobility. From one Autumn to the next, individual differences were consistent and the population median behaviours did not change, indicating long-term stability of personality differences. From Autumn to Spring, behavioural differences remained consistent, despite the population shifting to more proactive behaviour and individual differences being accentuated in the proactive-reactive personality axis. This increase in personality differences was not found between the two previous Autumns, suggesting a seasonal rather than longitudinal change, and a possible role for personality differences during the Spring breeding season. We conclude that waxbill personality differences are stable in the long term, despite changes in behaviour between Autumn and Spring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraia Guerra
- aCIBIO/InBIO — Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal
| | - Ana Cristina R. Gomes
- aCIBIO/InBIO — Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal
| | - Gonçalo C. Cardoso
- aCIBIO/InBIO — Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Rua Padre Armando Quintas, 4485-661 Vairão, Portugal
- bBehavioural Ecology Group, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
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14
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Rohrer KN, Ferkin MH. Long‐term repeatability and stability of three personality traits in meadow voles. Ethology 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.13037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Karl N. Rohrer
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Memphis Memphis TN USA
| | - Michael H. Ferkin
- Department of Biological Sciences University of Memphis Memphis TN USA
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15
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Dingemanse NJ, Moiron M, Araya-Ajoy YG, Mouchet A, Abbey-Lee RN. Individual variation in age-dependent reproduction: Fast explorers live fast but senesce young? J Anim Ecol 2019; 89:601-613. [PMID: 31618450 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Adaptive integration of life history and behaviour is expected to result in variation in the pace-of-life. Previous work focused on whether 'risky' phenotypes live fast but die young, but reported conflicting support. We posit that individuals exhibiting risky phenotypes may alternatively invest heavily in early-life reproduction but consequently suffer greater reproductive senescence. We used a 7-year longitudinal dataset with >1,200 breeding records of >800 female great tits assayed annually for exploratory behaviour to test whether within-individual age dependency of reproduction varied with exploratory behaviour. We controlled for biasing effects of selective (dis)appearance and within-individual behavioural plasticity. Slower and faster explorers produced moderate-sized clutches when young; faster explorers subsequently showed an increase in clutch size that diminished with age (with moderate support for declines when old), whereas slower explorers produced moderate-sized clutches throughout their lives. There was some evidence that the same pattern characterized annual fledgling success, if so, unpredictable environmental effects diluted personality-related differences in this downstream reproductive trait. Support for age-related selective appearance was apparent, but only when failing to appreciate within-individual plasticity in reproduction and behaviour. Our study identifies within-individual age-dependent reproduction, and reproductive senescence, as key components of life-history strategies that vary between individuals differing in risky behaviour. Future research should thus incorporate age-dependent reproduction in pace-of-life studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niels J Dingemanse
- Behavioural Ecology, Department of Biology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany
| | - Maria Moiron
- Research Group Evolutionary Ecology of Variation, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Seewiesen, Germany.,Centre d'Ecologie Fonctionnelle et Evolutive, UMR 5175 Campus CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Yimen G Araya-Ajoy
- Research Group Evolutionary Ecology of Variation, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Seewiesen, Germany.,Center for Biodiversity Dynamics, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Alexia Mouchet
- Behavioural Ecology, Department of Biology, Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich, Planegg-Martinsried, Germany.,Research Group Evolutionary Ecology of Variation, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Seewiesen, Germany
| | - Robin N Abbey-Lee
- Research Group Evolutionary Ecology of Variation, Max Planck Institute for Ornithology, Seewiesen, Germany.,IFM Biology, AVIAN Behavioural Genomics and Physiology Group, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
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16
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Kaiser A, Merckx T, Van Dyck H. Behavioural repeatability is affected by early developmental conditions in a butterfly. Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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17
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Class B, Brommer JE. Shared environmental effects bias phenotypic estimates of assortative mating in a wild bird. Biol Lett 2019; 14:rsbl.2018.0106. [PMID: 29997185 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2018.0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Assortative mating is pervasive in wild populations and commonly described as a positive correlation between the phenotypes of males and females across mated pairs. This correlation is often assumed to reflect non-random mate choice based on phenotypic similarity. However, phenotypic resemblance between mates can also arise when their traits respond plastically to a shared environmental effect creating a (within-pair) residual correlation in traits. Using long-term data collected in pairs of wild blue tits and a covariance partitioning approach, we empirically demonstrate that such residual covariance indeed exists and can generate phenotypic correlations (or mask assortative mating) in behavioural and morphometric traits. These findings (i) imply that residual covariance is likely to be common and bias phenotypic estimates of assortative mating, which can have consequences for evolutionary predictions, (ii) call for the use of rigorous statistical approaches in the study of assortative mating, and (iii) show the applicability of one of these approaches in a common study system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Class
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, University Hill, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Jon E Brommer
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, University Hill, 20014 Turku, Finland.,NOVIA University of Applied Sciences, Campus Raseborg, 10600 Ekenäs, Finland
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18
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Class B, Brommer JE, van Oers K. Exploratory behavior undergoes genotype-age interactions in a wild bird. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:8987-8994. [PMID: 31462997 PMCID: PMC6706179 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.5430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Animal personality traits are often heritable and plastic at the same time. Indeed, behaviors that reflect an individual's personality can respond to environmental factors or change with age. To date, little is known regarding personality changes during a wild animals' lifetime and even less about stability in heritability of behavior across ages. In this study, we investigated age-related changes in the mean and in the additive genetic variance of exploratory behavior, a commonly used measure of animal personality, in a wild population of great tits. Heritability of exploration is reduced in adults compared to juveniles, with a low genetic correlation across these age classes. A random regression animal model confirmed the occurrence of genotype-age interactions (G×A) in exploration, causing a decrease in additive genetic variance before individuals become 1 year old, and a decline in cross-age genetic correlations between young and increasingly old individuals. Of the few studies investigating G×A in behaviors, this study provides rare evidence for this phenomenon in an extensively studied behavior. We indeed demonstrate that heritability and cross-age genetic correlations in this behavior are not stable over an individual's lifetime, which can affect its potential response to selection. Because G×A is likely to be common in behaviors and have consequences for our understanding of the evolution of animal personality, more attention should be turned to this phenomenon in the future work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Class
- Department of BiologyUniversity of TurkuTurkuFinland
| | | | - Kees van Oers
- Department of Animal EcologyNetherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO‐KNAW)WageningenThe Netherlands
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19
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Old dog, new tricks: Age differences in dog personality traits, associations with human personality traits, and links to important outcomes. JOURNAL OF RESEARCH IN PERSONALITY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jrp.2019.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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20
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Male territorial aggression and fitness in collared flycatchers: a long-term study. Naturwissenschaften 2019; 106:11. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-019-1606-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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21
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Kaiser A, Merckx T, Van Dyck H. Personality traits influence contest outcome, and vice versa, in a territorial butterfly. Sci Rep 2019; 9:2778. [PMID: 30808995 PMCID: PMC6391398 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-39155-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Holding a territory is often crucial in order to acquire key resources, including mating partners. However, few studies have investigated the role of animal personality in the context of territorial conflicts and how the contest outcome itself may influence personality traits. We studied personality in male Speckled wood butterflies, Pararge aegeria, before and after territorial contests for sunspot territories. Before interactions, boldness decreased with age, while activity and exploration were only influenced by ambient conditions. Neither age nor morphology did influence the probability to win contests, but winners were more active and more explorative than losers and, moreover, males that received a red wing mark were more likely to be winners. Butterflies that lost a contest showed pronounced behavioural changes. Mean boldness increased and its repeatability was disrupted, while no such change was detected in winners. The observed boldness increase in losers may be explained by a ‘desperado effect’, though its implication for successive contests remains unknown. Given that territoriality is expected to have important consequences for reproductive success, our results suggest that personality traits may indirectly contribute to individual fitness by influencing the ability to gain access to mate-location patches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aurélien Kaiser
- Behavioural Ecology and Conservation Group, Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium.
| | - Thomas Merckx
- Behavioural Ecology and Conservation Group, Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Hans Van Dyck
- Behavioural Ecology and Conservation Group, Biodiversity Research Centre, Earth and Life Institute, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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22
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Unraveling behavioral and pace-of-life syndromes in a reduced parasite and predation pressure context: personality and survival of the Barbary ground squirrel. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-018-2549-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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23
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Trnka A, Samaš P, Grim T. Stability of a behavioural syndrome vs. plasticity in individual behaviours over the breeding cycle: Ultimate and proximate explanations. Behav Processes 2018; 153:100-106. [PMID: 29870797 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2018.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Revised: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Animals often show correlated suites of consistent behavioural traits, i.e., personality or behavioural syndromes. Does this conflict with potential phenotypic plasticity which should be adaptive for animals facing various contexts and situations? This fundamental question has been tested predominantly in studies which were done in non-breeding contexts and under laboratory conditions. Therefore, in the present study we examined the temporal stability of behavioural correlations in a breeding context and under natural conditions. We found that in the great reed warbler (Acrocephalus arundinaceus) females, the intensity of their nest defence formed a behavioural syndrome with two other traits: their aggression during handling (self-defence) and stress responses during handling (breath rate). This syndrome was stable across the nesting cycle: each of the three behavioural traits was highly statistically repeatable between egg and nestling stages and the traits were strongly correlated with each other during both the egg stage and the nestling stage. Despite this consistency (i.e., rank order between stages) the individual behaviours changed their absolute values significantly during the same period. This shows that stable behavioural syndromes might be based on behaviours that are themselves unstable. Thus, syndromes do not inevitably constrain phenotypic plasticity. We suggest that the observed behavioural syndrome is the product of interactions between behavioural and life history trade-offs and that crucial proximate mechanisms for the plasticity and correlations between individual behaviours are hormonally-regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfréd Trnka
- Department of Biology, University of Trnava, Priemyselná 4, 918 43, Trnava, Slovakia.
| | - Peter Samaš
- Institute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Květná 8, 60365 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Grim
- Department of Zoology and Laboratory of Ornithology, Palacký University, 17. listopadu 50, 77146 Olomouc, Czech Republic
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24
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Trnka A, Samaš P, Grim T. Consistent individual and sex-specific differences in behaviour of common cuckoo chicks: is there a potential impact on host-parasite coevolutionary dynamics? BEHAVIOUR 2018. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-00003522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Research on brood parasitism has focused primarily on specific host anti-parasite behaviours and parasite counter-adaptations, and little is known about other aspects of their behaviours such as consistent behavioural differences between individuals. Therefore, we examined consistency in behaviour of nestlings of common cuckoos (Cuculus canorus) raised by great reed warblers (Acrocephalus arundinaceus). Cuckoo chicks showed high repeatability of both aggressive behaviour and breath rate, and both traits were strongly correlated with each other. This represents the first evidence for consistent differences in behaviour among avian brood parasites. Males were consistently more aggressive and less stressed than females. Nestlings of both sexes that hatched later in the season exhibited higher levels of aggression and lower stress responses than nestlings hatched earlier. This suggests that rearing conditions (e.g., food availability and quality) may modulate stress and aggressive phenotypes of brood parasites. We discuss potential effects of the observed patterns on host-parasite dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfréd Trnka
- aDepartment of Biology, University of Trnava, Priemyselná 4, 918 43, Trnava, Slovakia
| | - Peter Samaš
- bInstitute of Vertebrate Biology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Květná 8, 60365 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Grim
- cDepartment of Zoology and Laboratory of Ornithology, Palacký University, 17. listopadu 50, 77146 Olomouc, Czech Republic
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Senar JC, Garamszegi LZ, Tilgar V, Biard C, Moreno-Rueda G, Salmón P, Rivas JM, Sprau P, Dingemanse NJ, Charmantier A, Demeyrier V, Navalpotro H, Isaksson C. Urban Great Tits (Parus major) Show Higher Distress Calling and Pecking Rates than Rural Birds across Europe. Front Ecol Evol 2017. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2017.00163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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26
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Hamel S, Gaillard JM, Douhard M, Festa-Bianchet M, Pelletier F, Yoccoz NG. Quantifying individual heterogeneity and its influence on life-history trajectories: different methods for different questions and contexts. OIKOS 2017. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.04725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Hamel
- Dept of Arctic and Marine Biology; Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, UiT the Arctic Univ. of Norway; NO-9037 Tromsø Norway
| | - Jean-Michel Gaillard
- CNRS, UMR 5558 Biométrie et Biologie Evolutive, Univ. de Lyon; Villeurbanne France
| | - Mathieu Douhard
- Dépt de biologie and Centre d'études Nordiques; Univ. de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke; Québec Canada
| | - Marco Festa-Bianchet
- Dépt de biologie and Centre d'études Nordiques; Univ. de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke; Québec Canada
| | - Fanie Pelletier
- Dépt de biologie and Centre d'études Nordiques; Univ. de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke; Québec Canada
| | - Nigel G. Yoccoz
- Dept of Arctic and Marine Biology; Faculty of Biosciences, Fisheries and Economics, UiT the Arctic Univ. of Norway; NO-9037 Tromsø Norway
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The Female Perspective of Personality in a Wild Songbird: Repeatable Aggressiveness Relates to Exploration Behaviour. Sci Rep 2017; 7:7656. [PMID: 28794486 PMCID: PMC5550452 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-08001-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Males often express traits that improve competitive ability, such as aggressiveness. Females also express such traits but our understanding about why is limited. Intraspecific aggression between females might be used to gain access to reproductive resources but simultaneously incurs costs in terms of energy and time available for reproductive activities, resulting in a trade-off. Although consistent individual differences in female behaviour (i.e. personality) like aggressiveness are likely to influence these reproductive trade-offs, little is known about the consistency of aggressiveness in females. To quantify aggression we presented a female decoy to free-living female great tits (Parus major) during the egg-laying period, and assessed whether they were consistent in their response towards this decoy. Moreover, we assessed whether female aggression related to consistent individual differences in exploration behaviour in a novel environment. We found that females consistently differed in aggressiveness, although first-year females were on average more aggressive than older females. Moreover, conform life history theory predictions, ‘fast’ exploring females were more aggressive towards the decoy than ‘slow’ exploring females. Given that personality traits are often heritable, and correlations between behaviours can constrain short term adaptive evolution, our findings highlight the importance of studying female aggression within a multivariate behavioural framework.
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28
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Šimková O, Frýdlová P, Žampachová B, Frynta D, Landová E. Development of behavioural profile in the Northern common boa (Boa imperator): Repeatable independent traits or personality? PLoS One 2017; 12:e0177911. [PMID: 28542424 PMCID: PMC5443515 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0177911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies of animal personality have focused on its proximate causation and ecological and evolutionary significance in particular, but the question of its development was largely overlooked. The attributes of personality are defined as between-individual differences in behaviour, which are consistent over time (differential consistency) and contexts (contextual generality) and both can be affected by development. We assessed several candidates for personality variables measured in various tests with different contexts over several life-stages (juveniles, older juveniles, subadults and adults) in the Northern common boa. Variables describing foraging/feeding decision and some of the defensive behaviours expressed as individual average values are highly repeatable and consistent. We found two main personality axes-one associated with foraging/feeding and the speed of decision, the other reflecting agonistic behaviour. Intensity of behaviour in the feeding context changes during development, but the level of agonistic behaviour remains the same. The juveniles and adults have a similar personality structure, but there is a period of structural change of behaviour during the second year of life (subadults). These results require a new theoretical model to explain the selection pressures resulting in this developmental pattern of personality. We also studied the proximate factors and their relationship to behavioural characteristics. Physiological parameters (heart and breath rate stress response) measured in adults clustered with variables concerning the agonistic behavioural profile, while no relationship between the juvenile/adult body size and personality concerning feeding/foraging and the agonistic behavioural profile was found. Our study suggests that it is important for studies of personality development to focus on both the structural and differential consistency, because even though behaviour is differentially consistent, the structure can change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Šimková
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petra Frýdlová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Žampachová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Daniel Frynta
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Landová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
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29
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Schuster AC, Carl T, Foerster K. Repeatability and consistency of individual behaviour in juvenile and adult Eurasian harvest mice. Naturwissenschaften 2017; 104:10. [PMID: 28236075 PMCID: PMC5325833 DOI: 10.1007/s00114-017-1430-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2016] [Revised: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Knowledge on animal personality has provided new insights into evolutionary biology and animal ecology, as behavioural types have been shown to affect fitness. Animal personality is characterized by repeatable and consistent between-individual behavioural differences throughout time and across different situations. Behavioural repeatability within life history stages and consistency between life history stages should be checked for the independence of sex and age, as recent data have shown that males and females in some species may differ in the repeatability of behavioural traits, as well as in their consistency. We measured the repeatability and consistency of three behavioural and one cognitive traits in juvenile and adult Eurasian harvest mice (Micromys minutus). We found that exploration, activity and boldness were repeatable in juveniles and adults. Spatial recognition measured in a Y Maze was only repeatable in adult mice. Exploration, activity and boldness were consistent before and after maturation, as well as before and after first sexual contact. Data on spatial recognition provided little evidence for consistency. Further, we found some evidence for a litter effect on behaviours by comparing different linear mixed models. We concluded that harvest mice express animal personality traits as behaviours were repeatable across sexes and consistent across life history stages. The tested cognitive trait showed low repeatability and was less consistent across life history stages. Given the rising interest in individual variation in cognitive performance, and in its relationship to animal personality, we suggest that it is important to gather more data on the repeatability and consistency of cognitive traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea C Schuster
- Department of Comparative Zoology, Institute for Evolution and Ecology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Teresa Carl
- Department of Comparative Zoology, Institute for Evolution and Ecology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katharina Foerster
- Department of Comparative Zoology, Institute for Evolution and Ecology, University of Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
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30
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Thys B, Eens M, Aerts S, Delory A, Iserbyt A, Pinxten R. Exploration and sociability in a highly gregarious bird are repeatable across seasons and in the long term but are unrelated. Anim Behav 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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