Oxygen-dependence of metabolic rate in the muscles of craniates

Hypoxia-acclimation adjusts skeletal muscle anaerobic metabolism and burst swim performance in a marine fish

Red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus, are a marine teleost native to the Gulf of Mexico that routinely experiences periods of low oxygen (hypoxia). Recent work has demonstrated this species has the capacity to improve aerobic performance in hypoxia through respiratory acclimation. However, it remains unknown how hypoxia acclimation impacts anaerobic metabolism in red drum, and the consequences of exhaustive exercise and recovery. Juvenile fish were acclimated to normoxia (n = 15, DO 90.4 ± 6.42 %) or hypoxia (n = 15, DO 33.6 ± 7.2 %) for 8 days then sampled at three time points: at rest, after exercise, and after a 3 h recovery period. The resting time point was used to characterize the acclimated phenotype, while the remaining time points demonstrate how this phenotype responds to exhaustive exercise. Whole blood, red muscle, white muscle, and heart tissues were sampled for metabolites and enzyme activity. The resting phenotype was characterized by lower pHe and changes to skeletal muscle ATP. Exhaustive exercise increased muscle lactate, and decreased phosphocreatine and ATP with no effect of acclimation. Interestingly, hypoxia-acclimated fish had higher pHe and pHi than control in all exercise time points. Red muscle ATP was lower in hypoxia-acclimated fish versus control at each sample period. Moreover, acclimated fish increased lactate dehydrogenase activity in the red muscle. Hypoxia acclimation increased white muscle ATP and hexokinase activity, a glycolytic enzyme. In a gait-transition swim test, hypoxia-acclimated fish recruited anaerobic-powered burst swimming at lower speeds in normoxia compared to control fish. These data suggest that acclimation increases reliance on anaerobic metabolism, and does not benefit recovery from exhaustive exercise.

Low-O₂ acclimation shifts the hypoxia avoidance behaviour of snapper (Pagrus auratus) with only subtle changes in aerobic and anaerobic function

It was hypothesised that chronic hypoxia acclimation (preconditioning) would alter the behavioural low-O(2) avoidance strategy of fish as a result of both aerobic and anaerobic physiological adaptations. Avoidance and physiological responses of juvenile snapper (Pagrus auratus) were therefore investigated following a 6 week period of moderate hypoxia exposure (10.2-12.1 kPa P(O(2)), 21 ± 1 °C) and compared with those of normoxic controls (P(O(2))=20-21 kPa, 21 ± 1 °C). The critical oxygen pressure (P(crit)) limit of both groups was unchanged at ~7 kPa, as were standard, routine and maximum metabolic rates. However, hypoxia-acclimated fish showed increased tolerances to hypoxia in behavioural choice chambers by avoiding lower P(O(2)) levels (3.3 ± 0.7 vs 5.3 ± 1.1 kPa) without displaying greater perturbations of lactate or glucose. This behavioural change was associated with unexpected physiological adjustments. For example, a decrease in blood O(2) carrying capacity was observed after hypoxia acclimation. Also unexpected was an increase in whole-blood P(50) following acclimation to low O(2), perhaps facilitating Hb-O(2) off-loading to tissues. In addition, cardiac mitochondria measured in situ using permeabilised fibres showed improved O(2) uptake efficiencies. The proportion of the anaerobic enzyme lactate dehydrogenase, at least relative to the aerobic marker enzyme citrate synthase, also increased in heart and skeletal red muscle, indicating enhanced anaerobic potential, or in situ lactate metabolism, in these tissues. Overall, these data suggest that a prioritization of O(2) delivery and O(2) utilisation over O(2) uptake during long-term hypoxia may convey a significant survival benefit to snapper in terms of behavioural low-O(2) tolerance.