Iatrogenic epinephrine-induced reverse Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: direct evidence supporting the role of catecholamines in the pathophysiology of the "broken heart syndrome"

Thromboembolic Complications in Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy

Apical ballooning syndrome, commonly known as Takotsubo syndrome, is a distinct cardiomyopathy often resembling acute myocardial infarction in presentation. Takotsubo syndrome patients exhibit varied patterns of left ventricular wall motion abnormalities, most frequently apical dyskinesis with basal hyperkinesis, that are characteristically transient. Although emotional or physical stressors precipitate Takotsubo syndrome in most cases, a significant proportion presents without identifiable triggers, with a pronounced female predominance. Despite recovery of left ventricular function, Takotsubo syndrome may lead to serious complications akin to acute coronary syndromes. The pathophysiology remains incompletely understood, with catecholamine surge implicated in the genesis of myocardial injury, although direct causation remains debated. Diagnosis involves integrating clinical history, imaging modalities like echocardiography, and cardiac MRI. Psychiatric disorders, particularly anxiety and depression, are frequently associated with Takotsubo syndrome, suggesting a role of chronic stress in disease susceptibility. Management includes supportive care, with anticoagulation considered in cases of apical thrombus, alongside close monitoring for complications and recovery of left ventricular function. This article reviews the current understanding, challenges in diagnosis, and management strategies for Takotsubo syndrome.

Iatrogenic Epinephrine Overdose Resulting in Transient Cardiac Dysfunction in a Pediatric Patient

Iatrogenic epinephrine overdose and subsequent development of transient myocardial dysfunction have been reported in the adult literature, though to a far lesser extent in children. The aim of this report is to describe a reversible, transient cardiac functional impairment in an otherwise healthy 13-year-old adolescent male after inadvertent intravenous epinephrine administration for anaphylaxis. Following epinephrine administration, the patient presented with hypotension and respiratory failure, with electrocardiographic changes suggestive of ischemia and depressed cardiac function on echocardiogram. The patient's symptoms resolved within 24 hours without need of pharmaceutical therapies, and the comprehensive work-up failed to identify other contributory etiologies. His myocardial function improved in follow-up. Although rare, this case illustrates the importance of careful administration of high-risk medications and close monitoring of critical side effects such as cardiac dysfunction following epinephrine administration in pediatric patients.

Takotsubo Syndrome: Differences between Peripartum Period and General Population

Takotsubo syndrome (TTS) was first described in postmenopausal women with transient regional wall motion abnormalities. The trigger is usually an emotional or physical stress. The catecholamine hypothesis seems to be the most prevailing. The main difference between TTS and acute coronary syndromes is that there is no obstructive coronary disease to explain the regional abnormalities. In this form, the left ventricle resembles the fishing jar which is used to trap octopus in Japan. However, to date more atypical forms are recognized. Also, the syndrome is not limited to older women. Nowadays, TTS is presented even in pregnancy and postpartum females. Our experience revealed cases of patients during these periods and some of them suffered from reverse Takotsubo. Additionally, the initial diagnosis in some patients was other than TTS. Due to these findings, we suggest that this type of TTS is not very rare but underestimated. For this reason, further studies are needed to support and explain this condition.

Pharmacological Triggers of Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy: An Updated Review of Evidence and Recommendations

BACKGROUND

Previous publications in 2011, 2016, and 2022 have presented lists of drugs associated with takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TCM). This review aims to provide updated drug lists that have been reported as potential causes of TCM.

METHODS

Following the same methodology employed in previous reviews, a detailed investigation was carried out in the PubMed/Medline database from June 2022 to July 2023 to identify drug-induced TCM (DITC) case reports. Various search terms related to the drug-induced transient left ventricular ballooning syndrome, ampulla cardiomyopathy, apical ballooning syndrome, drug-induced broken heart syndrome, drug triggered takotsubo cardiomyopathy, takotsubo cardiomyopathy, and iatrogenic takotsubo cardiomyopathy were utilized. Filters for fulltext availability, case reports, human studies, and English language were applied. Articles reporting drugs associated with TCM development were included in the analysis.

RESULTS

Foremost 192 case reports were initially identified, with 75 drugs meeting the inclusion criteria after a thorough review. The latest revision identified seven drugs that might lead to TCM, with four drugs (57.14%) already reported in previous reviews and three drugs (42.86%) newly identified. Consequently, the updated drug list potentially triggering TCM in 2023 comprises a sum of 75 drugs.

CONCLUSION

The recent 75 drugs provided additional evidence linking to TCM development. The updated list predominantly includes drugs that induce sympathetic overstimulation, although some drugs on the list have unclear associations with sympathetic nervous system activation.

Takotsubo syndrome is a coronary microvascular disease: experimental evidence

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Takotsubo syndrome (TTS) is a conundrum without consensus about the cause. In a murine model of coronary microvascular dysfunction (CMD), abnormalities in myocardial perfusion played a key role in the development of TTS.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Vascular Kv1.5 channels connect coronary blood flow to myocardial metabolism and their deletion mimics the phenotype of CMD. To determine if TTS is related to CMD, wild-type (WT), Kv1.5-/-, and TgKv1.5-/- (Kv1.5-/- with smooth muscle-specific expression Kv1.5 channels) mice were studied following transaortic constriction (TAC). Measurements of left ventricular (LV) fractional shortening (FS) in base and apex, and myocardial blood flow (MBF) were completed with standard and contrast echocardiography. Ribonucleic Acid deep sequencing was performed on LV apex and base from WT and Kv1.5-/- (control and TAC). Changes in gene expression were confirmed by real-time-polymerase chain reaction. MBF was increased with chromonar or by smooth muscle expression of Kv1.5 channels in the TgKv1.5-/-. TAC-induced systolic apical ballooning in Kv1.5-/-, shown as negative FS (P < 0.05 vs. base), which was not observed in WT, Kv1.5-/- with chromonar, or TgKv1.5-/-. Following TAC in Kv1.5-/-, MBF was lower in LV apex than in base. Increasing MBF with either chromonar or in TgKv1.5-/- normalized perfusion and function between LV apex and base (P = NS). Some genetic changes during TTS were reversed by chromonar, suggesting these were independent of TAC and more related to TTS.

CONCLUSION

Abnormalities in flow regulation between the LV apex and base cause TTS. When perfusion is normalized between the two regions, normal ventricular function is restored.

Myocardial stunning secondary to erroneous administration of intravenous epinephrine

Epinephrine is a commonly used medication for emergent conditions, such as anaphylaxis, respiratory distress, and shock. However, its versatility can also lead to iatrogenic errors in dosages, concentrations, and routes of administration. In this case, a 47-year-old female experiencing anaphylaxis received an intravenous dose of 0.3 mg (1:1000) epinephrine formulated for intramuscular injection, resulting in cardiac arrest and acute heart failure due to myocardial stunning, as diagnosed by echocardiography. Management included invasive ventilation and hemodynamic support until cardiac function recovered. This case highlights the potential dangers of epinephrine overdose, and to our knowledge, is the first reported case of iatrogenic epinephrine-induced Takotsubo cardiomyopathy in a rural area. In addition, we review the literature on iatrogenic epinephrine toxicity-associated cardiomyopathy and the epidemiology of epinephrine errors. Safety measures must be considered for improving communication in emergencies, increasing awareness via training, and changing epinephrine's antiquated packaging design.

Reverse Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy in a Critically Ill Patient in the ICU: A Case Report With Literature Review

Takotsubo, or stress cardiomyopathy (SC), is described as a transient systolic dysfunction of the apical segments of the left ventricle mainly triggered by emotional or physical stress resembling the presentation of an acute coronary syndrome in the absence of obstructive coronary artery disease. Reverse Takotsubo SC is a rare variant of SC that presents with basal ballooning instead of apical ballooning seen in classic SC. We present a case of a 74-year-old male who was admitted to the ICU with septic shock. Laboratory test results showed elevated troponin. An echocardiogram showed reduced cardiac contractility and relative hypokinesis of the basal and mid segments compared to the apical segments, consistent with reverse Takotsubo SC, which recovered after 10 days. It can happen in critically ill patients in the ICU secondary to severe sepsis and could contribute to hemodynamic worsening, affecting the final clinical outcomes.

Drugs as Possible Triggers of Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy- Update 2022: Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

A list of drugs that can induce takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TCM) was published in 2011 and 2016. The aim of the present review was to update this list.

METHODS

Similar to the 2011 and 2016 reviews, from April 2015 to May 2022 case reports of druginduced TCM were identified by a comprehensive search in Medline/PubMed database. The search terms were: takotsubo cardiomyopathy, tako-tsubo cardiomyopathy, stress cardiomyopathy, transientleft- ventricular ballooning syndrome, apical ballooning syndrome, ampulla cardiomyopathy OR broken heart syndrome; together with "iatrogenic", "induced by" OR "drug-induced". Registers published in English or Spanish, in humans, and with full texts were retrieved. Articles that recognized any drug associated with the development of TCM were selected.

RESULTS

Overall, 184 manuscripts were identified by the search. A total of 39 articles were included after an exhaustive revision. Eighteen drugs as possible triggers of TCM were identified in the current update. Of them, 3 (16.7%) have been previously identified, and 15 (83.3%) are different from the previous reports. Thus, the list of drugs as possible triggers of TCM updated in 2022 includes 72 drugs.

CONCLUSION

There are new case reports that link drugs with the development of TCM. The current list is principally made up of drugs that generate sympathetic overstimulation. However, some of the listed drugs do not have a clear link with sympathetic activation.

Stress Cardiomyopathy: The Midventricular Variant

• Midventricular TTC is a rare variant comprising 14.6% of stress cardiomyopathies. • TTC includes midventricular dyskinesis with normal basal and apical contractility. • Etiologies for all Takotsubo variants include physical/emotion stressors. • Pathophysiology remains unknown, although some theories exist.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy in a chronic spinal cord injury patient with autonomic dysreflexia: A case report

Context: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TC) is a transient stress-induced cardiomyopathy with left ventricular dysfunction of unknown etiology. A well accepted theory for the pathophysiology of TC is attributed to a massive catecholamine release [1]. This case report will review a chronic tetraplegia patient who was diagnosed with TC after a severe episode of autonomic dysreflexia (AD). He experiences mild episodes of AD several times a day; however, he had never experienced the severity of symptoms that was associated with this episode which led to his hospitalization. Autonomic dysreflexia is a syndrome of imbalanced sympathetic input secondary to loss of descending central sympathetic control in spinal cord injury due to noxious stimuli below the level of the injury, which occurs when the injury level is at thoracic level 6 (T6) or above [2].Findings: In this specific case, it is presumed that the massive catecholamine release associated with this severe AD episode resulted in TC. Although TC has been diagnosed after other instances of acute stress, it is unknown for it to be diagnosed after AD in a chronic setting.Clinical Relevance: The long-term effects of AD have not been well studied, and this case illustrates the importance of education to recognize and manage AD in the spinal cord patient who frequently has episodes of AD.

Association of marital status with takotsubo syndrome (broken heart syndrome) among adults in the United States

BACKGROUND

The pathophysiology of takotsubo syndrome (TTS) is not well understood, however, it is often precipitated by psychological or physical stress. Marital status is related to emotional stress, but its associations with TTS are limited.

AIM

To explored the potential association between marital status and TTS.

METHODS

We conducted a case-control study using data on patients aged ≥ 40 years with marital status data in the National Hospital Discharge Survey (2006-2010). The International Classification of Diseases Ninth Revision codes were used to identify cases with TTS and other comorbid conditions. Each case was matched to 5 controls by age, sex, year of TTS diagnosis and bed size of hospital. Two sets of controls were selected: Acute myocardial infarction (AMI) controls and non-cardiovascular disease (CVD) controls. Conditional logistic regression was used to estimate odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for the association of marital status with TTS.

RESULTS

The 59 patients with TTS who had information on marital status were matched to 295 controls with AMI and 295 non-CVD controls, resulting in a sample of 649 patients. The average age of cases was 69.7 ± 11 years with 90% being women and 88% reporting White race. In multivariable-adjusted models, compared to singles, patients who were married had lower odds of TTS (OR = 0.86, 95%CI: 0.79–0.93) while those who were widowed (OR = 1.14, 95%CI: 1.05–1.23) or divorced/separated (OR = 1.32, 95%CI: 1.21–1.45) had elevated odds for TTS when compared to non-CVD controls. Similar results were observed when cases were compared to controls with AMI.

CONCLUSION

In this study, being married was associated with lower odds for TTS while being divorced/separated or widowed was related to elevated odds for TTS. These novel findings that underscore the potential importance of social factors like marital status in the development of TTS need confirmation in larger studies.

Stress cardiomyopathy: Medical studies and extensive review

Stress cardiomyopathy (SC) was first reported in the year 1983. It is narrated as critical but quite commutative left ventricular (LV) malfunction mostly caused by poignant or psychological disorder. Numerous variations of SC have been described as well as reverse stress cardiomyopathy (rSC) which is an adaptation identified by the decreased muscle movement related with hyperkinesis that reconciles impetuously. The signature of rSC is a medical demonstration alike to syndrome by an acute coronary, with no obvious difficult coronary artery disease. The occurrence of SC is approximated to be 4% of all victims conferring with gleaned syndrome by acute coronary. The portion of victims conferring with the rSC transfiguration out of all SC patients has been inconstant, varying from 1 to 24%. Reverse stress cardiomyopathy cases are found to be common with young people, less decrease in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and more neurological disease compared to the SC. While the correct phenomenon of rSC is undetermined, postulated methods comprises of coronary microvasculature impairment, coronary artery spasm, and estrogen deficiency. Patients with rSC typically suffer with chest pain after an emotional or Psychological stressful event. The rSC can also be happened by general anesthesia, or neurological conditions. The diagnosis of rSC demands the presence of new electrocardiogram (EKG) abnormalities or elevated cardiac troponin, and absence of obstructive coronary disease, pheochromocytoma, or myocarditis. The consideration of rSC is quite analogous to that of SC, which is predominantly supportive with the treatment of complications. The recrudescence rate of rSC is around 12%. The most frequent complications of rSC include pericardial effusions, and development of LV thrombi.

[Takotsubo syndrome (stress-induced cardiomyopathy)]

The article presents published and own data about Takotsubo syndrome, a relatively rare heart disease that is similar to acute coronary syndrome, but without significant damage of coronary arteries. The leading pathogenetic factor is the catecholamine-induced stress damage of myocardium with involvement of microvessels. There is a certain underestimation of Takotsubo syndrome by both clinicians and pathologists, so some cases of Takotsubo syndrome are misdiagnosed as acute coronary syndrome. Morphological manifestations of Takotsubo syndrome are characterized by mucoid edema of interstitial myocardial tissue, round-cell infiltration of stroma and focal damage of cardiomyocytes.

Recurrent Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy Associated with Opioid Withdrawal During Buprenorphine Induction

This case report describes a 65-year-old female with iatrogenic opioid use disorder for chronic lower back pain, who developed Takotsubo cardiomyopathy on multiple occasions following buprenorphine induction. This patient had three opioid transfers to buprenorphine, over 4 years, two of which were complicated by Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. In the transfer where she did not develop Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, she was treated with high doses of the centrally acting agonist, clonidine (three times a day, total of 600 mcg/day), up to and including the day of her transfer. This case highlights the potential consequences of a precipitated withdrawal with buprenorphine in an opioid transfer and its possible prevention with clonidine. To our knowledge, this is the first description of the recurrent Takotsubo cardiomyopathy in an opioid transfer setting. Given that buprenorphine is a partial agonist, in the presence of a full opioid agonist, it can precipitate withdrawal within minutes to hours of its administration. Opioid withdrawal can result in a sympathetic overdrive. Although complications of opioid withdrawal are extensively documented, cardiotoxicity is uncommon. As the use of buprenorphine and its new injectable formulations rise, it is important for prescribers to be aware of this life threatening complication. The prophylactic administration of clonidine can be considered to reduce the risk of cardiotoxicity, as well as manage opioid withdrawal symptoms.

Epinephrine soaked tampons induced transient acute dilated cardiomyopathy during FESS procedure

Background

Epinephrine, in all modes of use, may pose a wide range of cardiotoxic events, ranging from sinus tachycardia to heart failure, life threatening arrhythmias, and even death. Because of daily and extensive use of epinephrine, these unusual and rare events tend to be forgotten by physicians. We present a case of dilated cardiomyopathy that developed following routine use of epinephrine-impregnated tampons during function endoscopic sinus (FESS) surgery.

Case presentation

A healthy, 24-year-old man with no family history of heart disease has undergone elective surgery under general anesthesia to repair the paranasal sinuses using endoscopic approach. During surgery, soon after being treated with 1: 1000 diluted epinephrine-soaked tampons, an hypertensive crisis was noticed followed by pulseless electrical activity. An extensive examination led to the diagnosis of non-ischemic dilated cardiomyopathy. After several days of heart failure medical therapy, complete resolution of all structural and functional changes was achieved.

Conclusion

In our case, we present an unusual and rare event of acute dilated cardiomyopathy following the use of epinephrine-soaked tampons during elective FESS surgery. A prompt response was observed after several days of heart failure treatment. Awareness of the epinephrine cardiotoxic potential even in the form of soaked tampons is essential for proper diagnosis and prompt treatment.

Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy in an Alzheimer Disease Patient: The Potential Contribution of Antidepressant Agents

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TC) is an acute cardiac dysfunction, clinically similar to myocardial ischemia. The physiopathology of the syndrome seems to be related to excessive sympathetic activity that is triggered by physical or emotional stress factors. We report the case of an 83-year-old woman with advanced Alzheimer disease who had recently used nortriptyline and sertraline and was admitted with chest pain. An electrocardiogram showed ST-elevation, and markers of myocardial necrosis were slightly increased. However, coronariography did not demonstrate stenotic lesions. Transthoracic echocardiography and ventriculography identified decreased ventricular function, apical akinesia, and compensatory hyperkinesia of other segments that were compatible with TC. The patient evolved with cardiogenic shock and died. Alzheimer patients may be more susceptible to develop TC, both because of the disease itself and because of the multiple medications they are exposed to that increase catecholamine levels. In this case, antidepressant drugs were considered to be a potential factor that enhanced the susceptibility.

Clinical features differentiating Takotsubo cardiomyopathy in the peripartum period from peripartum cardiomyopathy

There are some similarities in clinical features between Takotsubo cardiomyopathy during the peripartum period (PTCM) and peripartum cardiomyopathy (PPCM). Both conditions present as acute heart failure and decreased left ventricular (LV) ejection fraction in the peripartum period in previously heart-healthy women. The present study aimed to evaluate the differences in clinical features and outcomes between PTCM and PPCM. Between January 2004 and December 2016, 37 consecutive patients who demonstrated LV dysfunction during the peripartum period without previous heart disease were recruited retrospectively. The clinical, laboratory, and echocardiographic data of these patients were comprehensively reviewed. Twenty-one (57%) and 16 (43%) patients were classified into PPCM and PTCM groups, respectively, based on echocardiographic findings. The initial LV ejection fraction did not differ significantly between the 2 groups. However, all patients with PTCM showed complete recovery of LV ejection fraction at the 1-month follow-up. However, among 20 patients with PPCM who underwent 1-month echocardiography, only 6 (30%) showed complete recovery of LV ejection fraction at the 1-month follow-up. At the 12-month follow-up, only 10 patients showed complete recovery of LV ejection fraction. The incidence of PTCM was much higher than expected. Although LV dysfunction was similar at the initial diagnosis, the prognosis of LV recovery was more favorable in PTCM than in PPCM. Therefore, physicians should differentiate these two diseases entities, although they have several similarities in acute LV dysfunction.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: A discussion and case study

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TCM), first reported by Japanese doctors, has gained an overall acknowledgment as an independent malady of international attention. It resembles the presentation of an acute myocardial infarction but lacks ischemic myocardial tissue. The objective of this article is to review the physiology, diagnostics, treatment, and complications of TCM and report a case study of a patient who developed TCM.

METHODS

Observation through direct patient care allowed for data collection of this unique medical phenomenon. Supporting information was obtained via investigation of scholarly articles on TCM over the past 10 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Although TCM is usually transient, it is important to quickly differentiate TCM from other more serious medical conditions, such as myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism, and pheochromocytoma. Typical diagnostic workup includes electrocardiography, cardiac biomarkers, and echocardiography or coronary angiography. Complications include cardiogenic shock, left ventricular wall rupture, and life-threatening arrhythmias.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

The advanced practice nurse (APN) is instrumental in differentiating between TCM versus acute myocardial infarction, heart failure, pulmonary edema, dynamic outflow obstruction, and cardiogenic shock. Because of these possible acute and critical presentations, prompt recognition and intervention for patients with TCM are priorities for nurse practitioners.

Reverse Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a comprehensive review

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TTC) was first described in Japan in the 1980s. It is described as an acute but often reversible left ventricular (LV) dysfunction mainly triggered by emotional or physical stress. Multiple variants of TTC have been reported including reverse Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (rTTC) which is a variant characterized by the basal akinesis/hypokinesis associated with apical hyperkinesis that resolves spontaneously. The hallmark of rTTC is a clinical presentation similar to an acute coronary syndrome (ACS), with no evident obstructive coronary artery disease. The incidence of TTC is estimated to be 2% of all troponin-positive patients presenting with suspected ACS. The proportion of patients presenting with the rTTC variant out of all TTC patients in published literature has been variable, ranging from 1-23%. Reverse Takotsubo has been associated with younger age, less decrease in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF), and more neurological disease compared to the TTC. While the exact mechanism of rTTC is unknown, hypothesized mechanisms include catecholamine cardiotoxicity, coronary artery spasm, coronary microvasculature impairment, and estrogen deficiency. Patients with rTTC typically present with chest pain and/or dyspnea after an emotional or physically stressful event. rTTC can also be triggered by intracranial hemorrhage, general anesthesia, or neurological conditions. Diagnosis of rTTC requires the presence of LV basal hypokinesis/akinesis, new electrocardiogram (EKG) abnormalities or elevated cardiac troponin, and absence of obstructive coronary disease, pheochromocytoma, or myocarditis. Management of rTTC is similar to that of TTC, which is predominantly supportive with the treatment of complications. The recurrence rate of rTTC is around 10%. The most common complications of rTTC include myocarditis, pleural and pericardial effusions, and development of LV thrombi. The best predictors of mortality include decreased LVEF, development of atrial fibrillation, and neurologic disease.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy following unintentionally large subcutaneous adrenaline injection: a case report

Introduction

Stress cardiomyopathy, also known as takotsubo syndrome, is characterized by transient left ventricular dysfunction not attributable to obstructive epicardial coronary artery disease. Several pathological mechanisms have been proposed, including multivessel coronary artery vasospasm, coronary microcirculatory dysfunction, and excess catecholamine secretion.

Case presentation

A 68-year-old male presented to our institution for elective surgical removal of a cutaneous basal cell carcinoma on the right side of his face. Within minutes following the administration of local anaesthesia, the patient developed severe hypertension, tachycardia, ST-segment elevation on the electrocardiogram, and non-sustained broad-complex tachycardia. Urgent cardiac catheterization revealed non-obstructive coronary artery disease and left ventriculography demonstrated apical hypokinesia and moderate systolic dysfunction consistent with the takotsubo syndrome. On review of the medications administered, it was noted that an unintentionally large dose of adrenaline (4mg) had been injected subcutaneously with lignocaine. He was monitored in the coronary care and recovered fully with supportive care only. Bisoprolol was initiated on day 1 post procedure. On follow-up one month later, his left ventricular function had normalized.

Discussion

Our case report provides direct evidence supporting the pathogenetic role of excess catecholamine secretion in the development of the takotsubo syndrome. A review of the literature reveals that both exogenous catecholamine administration (adrenaline injection in the context of anaphylaxis or infiltrative anaesthesia) and excess endogenous catecholamine (phaechromocytoma) secretion has been associated with the takotsubo syndrome. Local infiltrative anaesthesia with the addition of adrenaline is commonly used as a vasoconstrictor in a wide variety of surgical procedures. To reduce the risk of adverse events, the lowest effective concentration of adrenaline to provide pain control and vasoconstriction is recommended.

Perioperative Stress-Induced (Takotsubo) Cardiomyopathy in Liver Transplant Recipients

A comprehensive analysis of published cases of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, occurred in liver transplant recipients in the perioperative period, has been attempted in this review. Predisposing factors, precipitating events, potential physiological mechanisms, acute and post-event management have been discussed.

Influence of Genetics and Gender in Takotsubo Syndrome: Unexplored Areas of an Incompletely Understood Disease

Stress cardiomyopathy, also known as “Takotsubo syndrome” (TS), is a complex disease that typically affects postmenopausal women. The pathophysiology is still largely unknown, but evidence of a frequent association between TS and stressful events has evoked the hypothesis of a pathophysiologic role of sympathetic overdrive in the myocardial dysfunction. However, despite several studies, the role gender plays in TS onset remains unclear because stress cardiomyopathy also has been described in young women and in men. Moreover, although several cases of a familial cluster of TS have been reported, no responsible gene mutations or polymorphisms have been clearly identified so far, and neither the modality of transmission or the true impact of genetic background. In this review, we discuss the role of gender in the onset, course, and outcomes of TS and we report the available data about polymorphisms and gene mutations so far investigated, trying to critically analyze the evidence reported in the literature.

Drug-Induced Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy

BACKGROUND

The most plausible hypothesis for takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TCM) is a catecholamine surge. Direct administration of catecholamines or medications causing catecholamine surge is frequently used in clinical practice.

METHODS

A Medline/PubMed database search was conducted for case reports or series of drug-induced TCM. All reported cases of drug-induced TCM were systemically identified and analyzed.

RESULTS

We identified 157 cases of drug-induced TCM. Fifty-seven (36.3%) cases were related to the administration of exogenous catecholamines. In 50 (31.9%) other cases, there was potential adrenergic effect. This included drugs with adrenergic vasoconstriction properties (3.2%), hyperadrenergic state due to alcohol or opioid withdrawal (7.7%), inhibitors of catecholamine reuptake (14.7%), anaphylactic reaction that is accompanied by catecholamine release (3.2%), and psychological or somatic stress coinciding with the administration of a drug that was thought to be the culprit (3.2%). Overall, 68.2% of these drug-induced TCM cases were catecholamine related. In 14 (8.9%) cases, the likely etiology of cardiomyopathy was chemotherapy-induced coronary vasospasm.

CONCLUSION

Our systematic review showed that over two-thirds of drug-induced TCM cases were due to direct or indirect catecholamine stimulation. The lowest effective dose and shortest duration of catecholamines should be utilized, and alternative therapies should be considered if feasible.

Recurrent Stress Cardiomyopathy During COPD Exacerbation: Are Beta-adrenergic Agonists Only to Blame?

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TCM) is a variant of stress-induced cardiomyopathy, characterized by transient left ventricular dysfunction that may be associated with emotional or physical triggers. We present the case of a 51-year-old Caucasian female with severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) who presented with syncope and was found to have her second lifetime episode of stress-induced cardiomyopathy. Eight months prior, she had been admitted with a COPD exacerbation and was found to have left ventricular (LV) dysfunction with ejection fraction (EF) of 22% attributed to TCM with subsequent normalization of her left ventricular function. Recurrence of stress-induced cardiomyopathy associated with COPD is a rare phenomenon and its presentation raises the possibility of a common underlying mechanism.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy with use of salbutamol nebulisation and aminophylline infusion in a patient with acute asthma exacerbation

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, apical ballooning syndrome or stress-induced cardiomyopathy is characterised by transient left ventricular dysfunction, mimicking myocardial infarction in the absence of obstructive coronary artery disease or acute plaque rupture on coronary angiography. The exact mechanism of myocardial dysfunction in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy is unknown; however, due to its association with physical and emotional stress, it is postulated that catecholamines play a central role in its pathogenesis. We present a case of a patient who was admitted with acute asthma exacerbation and was treated with β-2 agonist nebulisation and intravenous aminophylline. During her hospital stay she developed Takotsubo cardiomyopathy.

Clinical features and outcome of epinephrine-induced takotsubo syndrome: Analysis of 33 published cases

BACKGROUND

Takotsubo syndrome (TS) may be triggered by innumerable physical stress factors including epinephrine administration. The aim of this study is to report on the clinical features and outcome of epinephrine-induced TS (Epi-TS) in a large cohort of published cases.

METHODS

A computer assisted search of the electronic data base Pubmed was performed from 1990 to 2014. All cases deemed to have Epi-TS were retrieved and compared to the large recent report by Templin et al. (All-TS).

RESULTS

Thirty-three cases of Epi-TS were retrieved from the literature and compared to 1750 cases of All-TS. Chest pain as a presenting symptom occurred in 45% of cases. The Epi-TS patients were on average 20.6years younger than All-TS patients (p<0.0001). The women were still predominating in Epi-TS but in a significantly lower percentage compared to ALL-TS (73% in Epi-TS vs 89.8% in All-TS, p=0.0054). One third of the Epi-TS cases had basal pattern of TS compared to 2.2% of cases reported in All-TS. Epi-TS cases were characterized by high complication rates, which occurred in 57.6%. The most important risk factor for the development of TS complication was the accidental administration (P<0.001) and the dose of >1mg epinephrine (p=0.02). In spite of high complication rates, the recovery was rapid with no in-hospital mortality.

CONCLUSION

Epi-TS is characterized by a dramatic rapid onset of symptoms after epinephrine administration. Almost half of the cases had apical sparing and one third basal pattern of TS. In spite of high complication rates, the prognosis was good with no in-hospital mortality.

A Sudden Change of Heart: A Case of Rapidly Reversed Stress Cardiomyopathy in a Critically Ill Patient

We report the case of a 79-year-old woman who presented to our hospital for elective removal of an infratentorial meningioma and suffered a periprocedural cardiac arrest. Shortly after uncomplicated induction of anesthesia prior to the surgery, the patient became hypotensive and bradycardic, culminating ultimately in a cardiac arrest with pulseless electrical activity. Return of spontaneous circulation occurred within 90 seconds of arrest, but the patient remained dependent on maximal doses of epinephrine and dopamine for hemodynamic support. Echocardiography performed on the day of cardiac arrest revealed a newly depressed left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) of 15-20% with an apical ballooning pattern. Left heart catheterization showed no obstructive coronary lesions to explain her depressed ejection fraction. A diagnosis of stress cardiomyopathy (SCM) was made given the echocardiographic findings and absence of concomitant coronary disease. Within the next 24 hours, the patient was liberated from inotropic support, and at 6-month follow-up, her LVEF returned to 55% and she had no heart failure symptoms.

Differences between Takotsubo cardiomyopathy and reverse Takotsubo cardiomyopathy associated with subarachnoid hemorrhage

BACKGROUND

Both Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TTC) and reverse TTC (r-TTC) are characterized by reversible regional wall motion abnormalities of the heart unrelated to coronary artery pathology. It remains unclear whether and/or how r-TTC differs from TTC. Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is occasionally causative of TTC/r-TTC, and this study was conducted to detect possible differences between TTC and r-TTC associated with SAH.

METHODS

A single-center retrospective study was conducted on 328 consecutive SAH patients. They routinely underwent transthoracic echocardiography (TTE), ECG, and measurements of plasma catecholamines and other cardiac biomarkers within 24 h of admission. Demographic, echocardiographic, electrocardiographic and neurochemical profiles were compared between patients with TTC and r-TTC. The diagnosis of TTC/r-TTC was based on the revised Mayo Clinic Criteria.

RESULTS

Data of 21 SAH-induced TTC and 10 SAH-induced r-TTC patients admitted between January 2009 and December 2014 were analyzed. The patients with r-TTC were significantly younger than those with TTC (51.8 ± 10.9 vs. 63.5 ± 14.4 years, p = 0.04). The former exhibited significantly higher plasma epinephrine levels than the latter (809 ± 710 vs. 380 ± 391 pg/mL, p = 0.04). Plasma norepinephrine levels did not differ significantly (2421 ± 1374 vs. 1724 ± 1591 pg/mL, p = 0.25). No significant differences were observed in other demographic/physiologic variables, echocardiographic parameters, frequency of ECG abnormalities, and 90-day mortality. Moreover, none of the patients who underwent a follow-up TTE exhibited morphologic change from one type to the other.

CONCLUSIONS

The pathomechanisms in TTC and r-TTC may not be identical: however, distinguishing the two conditions may not have great importance from the standpoint of clinical management and prognostication.

Inverted stress- induced cardiomyopathy as a unusual variant of acute heart failure after cesarean delivery- a case report

Background

Stress- induced cardiomyopathy is acute, reversible left ventricle mainly apical dysfunction in patients with normal coronary angiography. Rarely it regards basal segments, therefore defined as “inverted stress- induced cardiomyopathy”. While classic form mostly affects postmenopausal women, inverted variant occurs essentially in younger females, always triggered by stress. It can also develop after medical procedures and surgery. Herein we report such unique case of 36- year old woman after cesarean delivery.

Case presentation

A 36- year- old white woman at 40 week of gestation was admitted to hospital for elective repeated cesarean delivery. During caesarean delivery under spinal anaesthesia a previously healthy woman became hypotensive, requiring ephedrine to maintain her blood pressure. Three hours after delivery the patient presented acute heart failure and pulmonary oedema. Due to low blood pressure she demanded the administration of inotropic agents. Owing to respiratory failure and gradual deterioration of consciousness, mechanical ventilation was applied. Results of additional tests finally excluded pulmonary thromboembolism and acute coronary syndrome. The transthoracic echocardiography revealed severe left ventricular systolic dysfunction, ejection fraction 30 % with hypokinesis of the mid and basal segments of posterior, anterior and lateral wall with preserved contractility of the apical segments. The diagnosis of inverted stress- induced cardiomyopathy was set upon the overall clinical data. Both echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging performed on the fifth day showed complete recovery of myocardial function. The patient was discharged after 15 days in good overall condition. At 12- month follow- up she remained asymptomatic with no echocardiographic abnormalities.

Conclusions

Inverted stress- induced cardiomyopathy may occur in postpartum period, especially in combination with spinal anesthesia and adrenergic stimulants administration. The clinical awareness and multimodality imaging of possible diagnosis and further management of this unexpected variant of acute heart failure after caesarean delivery is required.

Reverse Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy following Exogenous Epinephrine Administration in the Early Postpartum Period

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TCM) is typically triggered by stress and can often mimic acute myocardial infarction. It is typically characterized by ballooning of the apex of the left ventricle following emotional or physical stress. Reverse TCM is a rare variant in which the cardiac apex is hyperkinetic and ballooning occurs at the base of the heart. We present a case of reverse TCM in the immediate postpartum period following an injection of local epinephrine, followed by spontaneous resolution within 24 hours.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy precipitated by delirium tremens

A 57-year-old woman presented with alcohol withdrawal symptoms, which later progressed to delirium tremens. During hospitalization, she developed respiratory distress with acute pulmonary edema. Electrocardiogram (ECG) showed diffuse ST elevation with elevated cardiac enzymes. Echocardiogram showed estimated ejection fraction of 20–25% with characteristic apical ballooning. After several days of supportive care, the patient showed significant clinical improvement with normalization of ECG, cardiac enzymes, and echocardiographic findings. Coronary angiogram revealed no coronary abnormalities. Although Takotsubo cardiomyopathy has been associated with diverse forms of physical or emotional stress, only a few cases have been described with delirium tremens in the medical literature.

A New Insight Into Sudden Cardiac Death in Young People: A Systematic Review of Cases of Takotsubo Cardiomyopathy

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TTC) causes sudden cardiac death and has garnered increased attention worldwide in recent years. However, few studies have clearly classified the risk factors for this disease, including gender, race and morbidity, as well as the physical and mental stressors that can exacerbate the disease, particularly in young patients. To better analyze the characteristics of young TTC patients, we performed a systematic review of reported cases involving young patients.A computer-assisted search was performed using prominent electronic medical information sources to identify literature published between January 1965 and December 2013. Relevant studies containing clinical data of young TTC patients were included.Ninety-six records that included information about 104 cases were ultimately selected for our review. Several of the following results were noted: First, physical stress was more likely to exacerbate TTC than was mental stress in young patients. Second, more female than male TTC patients were noted among both young patients and the general population. Third, ethnicity appears to play no role in the disease, as no significant differences were noted among individuals of different races with respect to clinical characteristics, morbidity or stressors. Fourth, the clinical manifestations of TTC were similar to those of other cardiac diseases, including coronary heart disease. However, TTC may be detected using the combination of echocardiography and ventriculography.Clinicians should consider TTC if young patients present with symptoms similar to those of coronary heart disease so that harmful treatments such as coronary artery stent placement may be avoided. Moreover, the answers to questions regarding the clinical diagnostic criteria, etiology, pathophysiology, and the management of this syndrome in youth remain unclear; therefore, further research is needed.

Stress-induced cardiomyopathy

OBJECTIVES

Reversible stress-induced cardiac dysfunction is frequently seen as a complication of a multitude of acute stress states, in particular neurologic injuries. This dysfunction may be difficult to distinguish between that caused by myocardial ischemia and may impact both the treatment strategies and prognosis of the underlying condition. Critical care practitioners should have an understanding of the epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical characteristics, precipitating conditions, differential diagnosis, and proposed treatments for stress-induced cardiomyopathy.

DATA SOURCES

MEDLINE database search conducted from inception to August 2014, including the search terms "tako-tsubo," "stress-induced cardiomyopathy," "neurogenic cardiomyopathy," "neurogenic stress cardiomyopathy," and "transient left ventricular apical ballooning syndrome". In addition, references from pertinent articles were used for a secondary search.

STUDY SELECTION AND DATA EXTRACTION

After review of peer-reviewed original scientific articles, guidelines, and reviews resulting from the literature search described above, we made final selections for included references and data based on relevance and author consensus.

DATA SYNTHESIS

Stress-induced cardiomyopathy occurs most commonly in postmenopausal women. It can be precipitated by emotional stress, neurologic injury, and numerous other stress states. Patients may present with symptoms indistinguishable from acute coronary syndrome or with electrocardiogram changes and wall motion abnormalities on echocardiogram following neurologic injury. Nearly all patients will have an elevated cardiac troponin. The underlying etiology is likely related to release of catecholamines, both locally in the myocardium and in the circulation. Differential diagnosis includes myocardial infarction, myocarditis, neurogenic pulmonary edema, and nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Although the natural course of stress-induced cardiomyopathy is resolution, treatment strategies include sympathetic blockade and supportive care.

CONCLUSIONS

Stress-induced cardiomyopathy may mimic myocardial infarction and is an important condition to recognize in patients with underlying stress states, particularly neurologic injuries.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy after cesarean: a case report and published work review of pregnancy-related cases

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (TCM) primarily affects postmenopausal women and is an important differential diagnosis of acute coronary syndrome. We describe a rare case of post-partum TCM, and present a published work review of the cases of pregnancy-associated TCM. A 24-year-old Japanese woman pregnant with twins suffered from premature membrane rupture at 31 gestational weeks. Following emergency cesarean delivery, she complained of sudden dyspnea. Transthoracic echocardiography revealed an inverted Takotsubo pattern (ejection fraction, 46%). On post-delivery day 8, wall motion abnormalities subsided, and she was discharged on post-delivery day 16. We reviewed 18 relevant cases of peripartum TCM from the published work. Among them, 16 cases were post-partum and two cases occurred during pregnancy. Most women (81%) underwent cesarean delivery, and the first symptoms of TCM appeared during surgery in 38% of the cases. The dominant symptoms were chest pain (44%) and dyspnea (28%). Most cases (94%) exhibited electrocardiogram abnormalities, including ST changes and T-wave inversion. Serum levels of cardiac enzymes were abnormally high in 92% of the cases. Repeated echocardiography documented normalized left ventricular systolic function within 6 months in all cases. This case and review emphasize that TCM may be concealed in post-partum women by symptoms undistinguishable from acute coronary syndrome, peripartum cardiomyopathy or pulmonary thromboembolism, and that echocardiography may be a useful tool to distinguish them.

Inverted-Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: severe refractory heart failure in poly-trauma patients saved by emergency extracorporeal life support

OBJECTIVES

The sequelae of severe poly-trauma may include myocardial dysfunction followed by acute heart failure and death. Inverted-Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (ITC) is a variant of stress cardiomyopathy, characterized by a contractile abnormality with extensive left ventricular circumferential dyskinesia or akinesia with a hyperkinetic apex. We report our experience with refractory cardiogenic shock and/or cardiac arrest, treated with extracorporeal life support.

METHODS

From June 2008 to December 2011, we treated 4 adult poly-trauma patients (3 men, 1 woman, mean age: 27.7 ± 13.5 years, mean ISS score 53.2 ± 15.9) with veno-arterial (V-A) extracorporeal life support for cardiopulmonary failure/cardiac arrest refractory to conventional treatment, due to inverted-Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. We used a miniaturized extracorporeal life support (ECLS) device.

RESULTS

ITC myocardial dysfunction appeared 15.4 ± 11.6 h after intensive care unit admission and rapidly evolved to refractory cardiopulmonary failure and cardiac arrest (within 4.8 ± 2.5 h of the onset). At ECLS, initiation median pH was 7.12 ± 0.14 (6.91-7.25), median lactate was 6.7 ± 2.8 (4-10) mmol/l and median vasoactive-inotropic score was 192.1 ± 50.6 µg/kg/min. Tissue perfusion improved significantly within 4 h on ECLS. Cardiac function improved gradually but consistently. Initial median ejection fraction was 14.2 ± 4.7% and median global longitudinal strain test was -7.4 ± 4.7. At complete cardiac recovery, they were 62.73 ± 7.8 and -18.43 ± 2.4%, respectively. After that, 2 patients survived and were sent to neurological rehabilitation before hospital discharge. In the other 2 cases, post-traumatic cerebral death occurred and they underwent organ explantation.

CONCLUSIONS

Rapid heparin-free ECLS may improve outcome in the most severe cases of poly-traumatized patients demonstrating refractory inverted-Takotsubo cardiomyopathy.

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy and anaesthesia: case report and review of the literature

Takotsubo cardiomyopathy is an acute syndrome characterized by cardiac failure from disturbances in the contractility of the left ventricle. It is presumably caused by sympathetic over stimulation. We describe a case of postoperatively developed Takotsubo cardiomyopathy in a 69-year-old female. The syndrome developed in connection with awareness during complete residual paralysis. The literature on this syndrome is reviewed and implications for anaesthesia described.

Direct evidences for sympathetic hyperactivity and baroreflex impairment in Tako Tsubo cardiopathy

Background

The exact pathophysiology of Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy (TTC) remains unknown but a role for sympathetic hyperactivity has been suggested. Up to now, no direct evidence of sympathetic nerve hyperactivity has been established nor involvement of sympathetic baroreflex identified. The aim of our study was to determine, by direct sympathetic nerve activity (SNS) recording if sympathetic nervous system activity is increased and spontaneous baroreflex control of sympathetic activity reduced in patients with TTC.

Methods

We included 13 patients who presented with TTC and compared their SNS activity and spontaneous baroreflex control of sympathetic activity with that of 13 control patients with acutely decompensated chronic heart failure. SNS activity was evaluated by microneurography, a technique assessing muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA). Spontaneous baroreflex control of sympathetic activity was evaluated as the absolute value of the slope of the regression line representing the relationship between spontaneous diastolic blood pressure values and concomitant SNS activity. Control patients were matched for age, sex, left ventricular ejection fraction and creatinine clearance.

Results

The mean age of the patients with TTC was 80 years, all patients were women. There were no significant differences between the two groups of patients for blood pressure, heart rate or oxygen saturation level. TTC patients presented a significant increase in sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA median 63.3 bursts/min [interquartile range 61.3 to 66.0] vs median 55.7 bursts/min [interquartile range 51.0 to 61.7]; p = 0.0089) and a decrease in spontaneous baroreflex control of sympathetic activity compared to matched control patients (spontaneous baroreflex control of sympathetic activity median 0.7%burst/mmHg [interquartile range 0.4 to 1.9] vs median 2.4%burst/mmHg [interquartile range 1.8 to 2.9]; p = 0.005).

Conclusions

We report for the first time, through direct measurement of sympathetic nerve activity, that patients with TTC exhibit elevated SNS activity associated with a decrease in spontaneous baroreflex control of sympathetic activity. These data may explain the pathophysiology and clinical presentation of patient with TTC.

Iatrogenic takotsubo cardiomyopathy induced by locally applied epinephrine and cocaine

A 67-year-old man underwent surgery under general anaesthesia to obtain a biopsy from a tumour in the left maxillary sinus. Before the procedure a mucosal detumescence containing epinephrine and cocaine was applied onto the nasal mucosa. Shortly after termination of anaesthesia the patient developed tachycardia and an abrupt rise in blood pressure followed by a drop to critical levels. The patient turned pale and clammy but denied chest pain at any time. An ECG showed inferolateral ST-segment elevation, and troponin T was elevated at 0.773 ng/mL. An acute coronary angiography demonstrated normal coronary arteries; however, left ventriculography showed apical ballooning of the left ventricle, and the diagnosis of takotsubo cardiomyopathy was made. This was confirmed by a subsequent transthoracic echocardiography. Four days later the patient had complete resolution of the symptoms, and a new echocardiography showed normalisation of the left ventricular systolic function with no signs of apical ballooning.