Identification of MODY among patients screened for gestational diabetes: a clinician's guide

Neonatal hypoglycaemia in the offsprings of parents with maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY)

INTRODUCTION

Neonatal hypoglycaemia is the most common metabolic disorder of various causes, relatively rare being MODY (Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young).

CONTENT

Data search of relevant articles focused on hypoglycaemia in carriers of selected MODY gene mutations published from 2007 to 2022 was performed in databases Medline, Pubmed, Cochrane and UptoDate based on key words: 'hyperinsulinemic hypoglycaemia', 'congenital hyperinsulinism', 'MODY', 'HNF4A mutation', 'HNF1A mutation'.

SUMMARY

Loss of function of HNF4A and HNF1A genes comprises approximately to 5.9 % of diazoxide responsive hyperinsulinemic hypoglycaemia, which may appear in 15 % HNF4A mutation carriers. A typical finding of HNF4A mutation carriers with neonatal hypoglycaemia was a birth weight above 4000 g or above 97th percentile.

OUTLOOK

Although mutations in MODY genes represent a rare cause of neonatal hypoglycaemia, they should be considered in the differential diagnosis, particularly in cases of persistent hypoglycaemia requiring intensive care.

Monogenic diabetes

Monogenic diabetes includes several clinical conditions generally characterized by early-onset diabetes, such as neonatal diabetes, maturity-onset diabetes of the young (MODY) and various diabetes-associated syndromes. However, patients with apparent type 2 diabetes mellitus may actually have monogenic diabetes. Indeed, the same monogenic diabetes gene can contribute to different forms of diabetes with early or late onset, depending on the functional impact of the variant, and the same pathogenic variant can produce variable diabetes phenotypes, even in the same family. Monogenic diabetes is mostly caused by impaired function or development of pancreatic islets, with defective insulin secretion in the absence of obesity. The most prevalent form of monogenic diabetes is MODY, which may account for 0.5-5% of patients diagnosed with non-autoimmune diabetes but is probably underdiagnosed owing to insufficient genetic testing. Most patients with neonatal diabetes or MODY have autosomal dominant diabetes. More than 40 subtypes of monogenic diabetes have been identified to date, the most prevalent being deficiencies of GCK and HNF1A. Precision medicine approaches (including specific treatments for hyperglycaemia, monitoring associated extra-pancreatic phenotypes and/or following up clinical trajectories, especially during pregnancy) are available for some forms of monogenic diabetes (including GCK- and HNF1A-diabetes) and increase patients' quality of life. Next-generation sequencing has made genetic diagnosis affordable, enabling effective genomic medicine in monogenic diabetes.

A Clinical Update on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) traditionally refers to abnormal glucose tolerance with onset or first recognition during pregnancy. GDM has long been associated with obstetric and neonatal complications primarily relating to higher infant birthweight and is increasingly recognized as a risk factor for future maternal and offspring cardiometabolic disease. The prevalence of GDM continues to rise internationally due to epidemiological factors including the increase in background rates of obesity in women of reproductive age and rising maternal age and the implementation of the revised International Association of the Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups' criteria and diagnostic procedures for GDM. The current lack of international consensus for the diagnosis of GDM reflects its complex historical evolution and pragmatic antenatal resource considerations given GDM is now 1 of the most common complications of pregnancy. Regardless, the contemporary clinical approach to GDM should be informed not only by its short-term complications but also by its longer term prognosis. Recent data demonstrate the effect of early in utero exposure to maternal hyperglycemia, with evidence for fetal overgrowth present prior to the traditional diagnosis of GDM from 24 weeks' gestation, as well as the durable adverse impact of maternal hyperglycemia on child and adolescent metabolism. The major contribution of GDM to the global epidemic of intergenerational cardiometabolic disease highlights the importance of identifying GDM as an early risk factor for type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease, broadening the prevailing clinical approach to address longer term maternal and offspring complications following a diagnosis of GDM.

Screening for monogenic subtypes of gestational diabetes in a high prevalence island population - A whole exome sequencing study

AIMS

The reported frequency of monogenic defects of beta cell function in gestational diabetes (GDM) varies extensively. This study aimed to evaluate the frequency and molecular spectrum of variants in genes associated with monogenic/atypical diabetes in non-obese females of Maltese ethnicity with GDM.

METHODS

50 non-obese females who met the International Association of the Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups (IADPSG) criteria for diagnosis of GDM and with a first-degree relative with non-autoimmune diabetes were included in this study. Whole exome capture and high throughput sequencing was carried out. Rare sequence variants were filtered, annotated, and prioritised according to the American College for Medical Genetics guidelines. For selected missense variants we explored effects on protein stability and structure through in-silico tools.

RESULTS

We identified three pathogenic variants in GCK, ABCC8 and HNF1A and several variants of uncertain significance in the cohort. Genotype-phenotype correlations and post-pregnancy follow-up data are described.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides the first insight into an underlying monogenic aetiology in non-obese females with GDM from an island population having a high prevalence of diabetes. It suggests that monogenic variants constitute an underestimated cause of diabetes detected in pregnancy, and that careful evaluation of GDM probands to identify monogenic disease subtypes is indicated.