Human muscle fatigue and elastic compressive stockings

Acute Recovery after a Fatigue Protocol Using a Recovery Sports Legging: An Experimental Study

Enhancing recovery is a fundamental component of high-performance sports training since it enables practitioners to potentiate physical performance and minimise the risk of injuries. Using a new sports legging embedded with an intelligent system for electrostimulation, localised heating and compression (completely embodied into the textile structures), we aimed to analyse acute recovery following a fatigue protocol. Surface electromyography- and torque-related variables were recorded on eight recreational athletes. A fatigue protocol conducted in an isokinetic dynamometer allowed us to examine isometric torque and consequent post-exercise acute recovery after using the sports legging. Regarding peak torque, no differences were found between post-fatigue and post-recovery assessments in any variable; however, pre-fatigue registered a 16% greater peak torque when compared with post-fatigue for localised heating and compression recovery methods. Our data are supported by recent meta-analyses indicating that individual recovery methods, such as localised heating, electrostimulation and compression, are not effective to recover from a fatiguing exercise. In fact, none of the recovery methods available through the sports legging tested was effective in acutely recovering the torque values produced isometrically.

Comparison of Physiological Effects Induced by Two Compression Stockings and Regular Socks During Prolonged Standing Work

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this study was to evaluate and compare lower-leg muscle fatigue, edema, and discomfort induced by the prolonged standing of security guards wearing regular socks and those wearing 15-20 or 20-30 mmHg compression stockings as intervention.

BACKGROUND

Compression stockings are sometimes used by individuals standing all day at work. However, quantitative evidence showing their potential benefits for lower-leg health issues in healthy individuals during real working conditions is lacking.

METHOD

Forty male security employees participated in the study. All were randomly assigned to the control or one of the two intervention groups (I15-20 or I20-30). Lower-leg muscle twitch force, volume, and discomfort ratings were measured before and after their regular 12-hr standing work shift.

RESULTS

Significant evidence of lower-leg long-lasting muscle fatigue, edema, and discomfort was observed after standing work for guards wearing regular socks. However, no significant changes were found for guards wearing either compression stockings.

CONCLUSION

In healthy individuals, compression stockings seem to attenuate efficiently the tested outcomes in the lower leg resulting from prolonged standing.

APPLICATION

Occupational activities requiring prolonged standing may benefit from 15-20 or 20-30 mmHg compression stockings. As similar benefits were observed for both levels of compression, the lower level may be sufficient.

Putting the Squeeze on Compression Garments: Current Evidence and Recommendations for Future Research: A Systematic Scoping Review

Background

Compression garments are regularly worn during exercise to improve physical performance, mitigate fatigue responses, and enhance recovery. However, evidence for their efficacy is varied and the methodological approaches and outcome measures used within the scientific literature are diverse.

Objectives

The aim of this scoping review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the effects of compression garments on commonly assessed outcome measures in response to exercise, including: performance, biomechanical, neuromuscular, cardiovascular, cardiorespiratory, muscle damage, thermoregulatory, and perceptual responses.

Methods

A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and CINAHL Complete) was performed from the earliest record to 27 December, 2020.

Results

In total, 183 studies were identified for qualitative analysis with the following breakdown: performance and muscle function outcomes: 115 studies (63%), biomechanical and neuromuscular: 59 (32%), blood and saliva markers: 85 (46%), cardiovascular: 76 (42%), cardiorespiratory: 39 (21%), thermoregulatory: 19 (10%) and perceptual: 98 (54%). Approximately 85% (n = 156) of studies were published between 2010 and 2020.

Conclusions

Evidence is equivocal as to whether garments improve physical performance, with little evidence supporting improvements in kinetic or kinematic outcomes. Compression likely reduces muscle oscillatory properties and has a positive effect on sensorimotor systems. Findings suggest potential increases in arterial blood flow; however, it is unlikely that compression garments meaningfully change metabolic responses, blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiorespiratory measures. Compression garments increase localised skin temperature and may reduce perceptions of muscle soreness and pain following exercise; however, rating of perceived exertion during exercise is likely unchanged. It is unlikely that compression garments negatively influence exercise-related outcomes. Future research should assess wearer belief in compression garments, report pressure ranges at multiple sites as well as garment material, and finally examine individual responses and varying compression coverage areas.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01604-9.

A below-knee compression garment reduces fatigue-induced strength loss but not knee joint position sense errors

PURPOSE

We examined the possibility that wearing a below-knee compression garment (CG) reduces fatigue-induced strength loss and joint position sense (JPS) errors in healthy adults.

METHODS

Subjects (n = 24, age = 25.5 ± 4 years) were allocated to either one of the treatment groups that performed 100 maximal isokinetic eccentric contractions at 30°^-1 with the right-dominant knee extensors: (1) with (EXPCG) or (2) without CG (EXP) or to (3) a control group (CONCG: CG, no exercise). Changes in JPS errors, and maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) torque were measured immediately post-, 24 h post-, and 1 week post-intervention in each leg. All testing was done without the CG.

RESULTS

CG afforded no protection against JPS errors. Mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed that absolute JPS errors increased post-intervention in EXPCG and EXP not only in the right-exercised (52%, p = 0.013; 57%, p = 0.007, respectively) but also in the left non-exercised (55%, p = 0.001; 58%, p = 0.040, respectively) leg. Subjects tended to underestimate the target position more in the flexed vs. extended knee positions (75-61°: - 4.6 ± 3.6°, 60-50°: - 4.2 ± 4.3°, 50-25°: - 2.9 ± 4.2°), irrespective of group and time. Moreover, MVIC decreased in EXP but not in EXPCG and CONCG at immediately post-intervention (p = 0.026, d = 0.52) and 24 h post-intervention (p = 0.013, d = 0.45) compared to baseline.

CONCLUSION

Altogether, a below-knee CG reduced fatigue-induced strength loss at 80° knee joint position but not JPS errors in healthy younger adults.

Benefits of Compression Garments Worn During Handball-Specific Circuit on Short-Term Fatigue in Professional Players

Ravier, G, Bouzigon, R, Beliard, S, Tordi, N, and Grappe, F. Benefits of compression garments worn during handball-specific circuit on short-term fatigue in professional players. J Strength Cond Res 32(12): 3528-3536, 2018-The purpose of this study was to investigate the benefits of full-leg length compression garments (CGs) worn during a handball-specific circuit exercises on athletic performance and acute fatigue-induced changes in strength and muscle soreness in professional handball players. Eighteen men (mean ± SD: age 23.22 ± 4.97 years; body mass: 82.06 ± 9.69 kg; height: 184.61 ± 4.78 cm) completed 2 identical sessions either wearing regular gym short or CGs in a randomized crossover design. Exercise circuits of explosive activities included 3 periods of 12 minutes of sprints, jumps, and agility drills every 25 seconds. Before, immediately after and 24 hours postexercise, maximal voluntary knee extension (maximal voluntary contraction, MVC), rate of force development (RFD), and muscle soreness were assessed. During the handball-specific circuit sprint and jump performances were unchanged in both conditions. Immediately after performing the circuit exercises MVC, RFD, and PPT decreased significantly compared with preexercise with CGs and noncompression clothes. Decrement was similar in both conditions for RFD (effect size, ES = 0.40) and PPT for the soleus (ES = 0.86). However, wearing CGs attenuated decrement in MVC (p < 0.001) with a smaller decrease (ES = 1.53) in CGs compared with regular gym shorts condition (-5.4 vs. -18.7%, respectively). Full recovery was observed 24 hours postexercise in both conditions for muscle soreness, MVC, and RFD. These findings suggest that wearing CGs during a handball-specific circuit provides benefits on the impairment of the maximal muscle force characteristics and is likely to be worthwhile for handball players involved in activities such as tackles.

Can Graduated Compressive Stockings Reduce Muscle Activity During Running?

PURPOSE

Graduated compressive stockings (GCS) have been suggested to influence performance by reducing muscle oscillations and improving muscle function and efficiency. However, no study to date has analyzed the influence of GCS on muscle activity during running. The objective of the study was to analyze the influence of GCS on the perception of comfort and muscle activation of the main muscles of the lower leg during running.

METHOD

Thirty-six participants ran on a treadmill with (GCS) or without (control) GCS. The running tests consisted of a 10-min warm-up followed by a 20-min intense run at 75% of the athlete's maximal aerobic speed. Surface electromyography of the tibialis anterior, peroneus longus, gastrocnemius lateralis (GL), and gastrocnemius medialis (GM) were recorded every 5 min during the run and analyzed using a non-linearly scaled wavelet analysis. Perception of comfort of the GCS was measured before and after the run.

RESULTS

The GCS were reported as comfortable garments and reduced GL activity at Minute 0 (p < .05, [Formula: see text]= .245) and Minute 5 (p < .05, [Formula: see text]= .326) and GM activity at Minute 0 (p < .05, [Formula: see text]= .233) compared with running without garments, but their effect was temporary and disappeared after 5 min of running.

CONCLUSION

Even though GCS reduced gastrocnemius muscle activity during the initial minutes of running, it is hypothesized that the GCS could have lost their initial levels of compression after some minutes of exercise, thereby reducing their influence on muscle activation. However, this hypothesis needs to be further investigated.

The effects of compression garments and electrostimulation on athletes' muscle soreness and recovery

In this study, we explained the effects of compression garment and electrostimulation on athletes’ recovery period by evaluating blood lactate and isokinetic peak torque parameters. Twenty volunteers (15.55± 0.51 yr) were included to study. At recovery period, blood samples was taken for lactate values at 0th, 3rd, 5th, 15th, 30th min. The isokinetic strength test was performed on right ankle at 15th min and on the left ankle at 30th min. The same protocol was performed for compression garment on 2 weeks and for electrostimulation on third weeks and results were compared. There wasn’t any significant difference on blood lactate levels within groups. At women; there was not any significant difference on isokinetic peak torques within two groups. but at electro-stimulation usage we found significant increases on right plantar flexion (P<0.1), right dorsal flexion (RDF) (P<0.1) and left plantar flexion (LPF) (P<0.1) values compared to control measurements. At men; with compression garment usage, there was significant increase on LPF values compared to control measurements. At electrostimulation usage, we found significant increases on RDF (P<0.1) and left dorsal flexion (P<0.1) values compared to control measurements. During recovery, there is not any beneficial effect seen on blood lactate level within two groups. When compared to passive rest, compression garments and electrostimulation interventions effects on force generation capacity at recovery are statically significant. Also in terms of force generation capacity; usage of electrostimulation during 15 min and compression garments during 30 min were statically more significant.

Effect of lower body compression garments on hemodynamics in response to running session

Purpose. Compression garments are often worn during exercise and allegedly have ergogenic and/or physiological effects. In this study, we compared hemodynamics and running performance while wearing compression and loose-fit breeches. We hypothesized that in neutral-warm environment compression breeches impair performance by diminishing body cooling via evaporative sweat loss and redistributing blood from active musculature to skin leading to a larger rise in body temperature and prolonging recovery of hemodynamics after exercise. Methods. Changes in hemodynamics (leg blood flow, heart rate, and blood pressure during orthoclinostatic test), calf muscle tissue oxygenation, and skin and core temperatures were measured in response to 30 min running (simulation of aerobic training session) followed by maximal 400 m sprint (evaluation of running performance) in recreationally active females (25.1 ± 4.2 yrs; 63.0 ± 8.6 kg) wearing compression or loose-fit breeches in randomized fashion. Results. Wearing compression breeches resulted in larger skin temperature rise under the garment during exercise and recovery (by about 1°C, P < 0.05; statistical power > 85%), while core temperature dynamics and other measured parameters including circulation, running performance, and sensations were similar compared to wearing loose-fit breeches (P > 0.05). Conclusion. Compared with loose-fit breeches, compression breeches have neither positive nor negative physiological and performance effects for females running in thermoneutral environment.

A novel compression garment with adhesive silicone stripes improves repeated sprint performance - a multi-experimental approach on the underlying mechanisms

Background

Repeated sprint performance is determined by explosive production of power, as well as rapid recovery between successive sprints, and there is evidence that compression garments and sports taping can improve both of these factors.

Methods

In each of two sub-studies, female athletes performed two sets of 30 30-m sprints (one sprint per minute), one set wearing compression garment with adhesive silicone stripes (CGSS) intended to mimic taping and the other with normal clothing, in randomized order. Sub-study 1 (n = 12) focused on cardio-respiratory, metabolic, hemodynamic and perceptual responses, while neuronal and biomechanical parameters were examined in sub-study 2 (n = 12).

Results

In both sub-studies the CGSS improved repeated sprint performance during the final 10 sprints (best P < 0.01, d = 0.61). None of the cardio-respiratory or metabolic variables monitored were altered by wearing this garment (best P = 0.06, d = 0.71). Also during the final 10 sprints, rating of perceived exertion by the upper leg muscles was reduced (P = 0.01, d = 1.1), step length increased (P = 0.01, d = 0.91) and activation of the m. rectus femoris elevated (P = 0.01, d = 1.24), while the hip flexion angle was lowered throughout the protocol (best P < 0.01, d = 2.28) and step frequency (best P = 0.34, d = 0.2) remained unaltered.

Conclusion

Although the physiological parameters monitored were unchanged, the CGSS appears to improve performance during 30 30-m repeated sprints by reducing perceived exertion and altering running technique.

The effect of graduated compression tights, compared with running shorts, on counter movement jump performance before and after submaximal running

The purpose of this study was to determine if wearing graduated compression tights, compared with loose fitting running shorts, would increase and or help sustain counter movement jump (CMJ) height after submaximal running. Fourteen competitive runners (6 women and 8 men) participated in this study. The subjects' mean (±SD) for age, height, body mass, percent body fat, resting heart rate, and maximal heart rate were 28.2 ± 14.0 years, 174.7 ± 8.6 cm, 70.2 ± 14.9 kg, 15.5 ± 8.1%, 67.2 ± 7.4 b.min, and 186.5 ± 9.5 b.min, respectively. During testing, subjects wore a Polar RS400 heart rate monitor. Each trial consisted of 15 minutes of continual treadmill running with 5 minutes performed at 50%, 70%, and 85% of the subject's heart rate reserve. Using a Vertec vertical leaper, each subject performed 3 CMJ, both pre- and postrun trials, with the mean value used to measure relative leg power. In addition to the CMJ height data, each subject rated their level of perceived exertion (RPE), and their comfort level, after the postrun trials. The mean postrun CMJ height in graduated compression tights of 60.3 ± 19.4 cm was significantly greater (at the p < 0.05 level) than both the prerun with tights of 57.7 ± 19.4 cm (4.5% increase) and the postrun running shorts of 57.7 ± 19.6 cm (4.5% increase). In addition, the subjects reported a significantly lower level of perceived exertion and greater comfort values while wearing the graduated compression tights. The results of the present study support the use of graduated compression tights for maintenance of lower limb muscle power after submaximal endurance running.

Bringing light into the dark: effects of compression clothing on performance and recovery

To assess original research addressing the effect of the application of compression clothing on sport performance and recovery after exercise, a computer-based literature research was performed in July 2011 using the electronic databases PubMed, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science. Studies examining the effect of compression clothing on endurance, strength and power, motor control, and physiological, psychological, and biomechanical parameters during or after exercise were included, and means and measures of variability of the outcome measures were recorded to estimate the effect size (Hedges g) and associated 95% confidence intervals for comparisons of experimental (compression) and control trials (noncompression). The characteristics of the compression clothing, participants, and study design were also extracted. The original research from peer-reviewed journals was examined using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) Scale. Results indicated small effect sizes for the application of compression clothing during exercise for short-duration sprints (10-60 m), vertical-jump height, extending time to exhaustion (such as running at VO2max or during incremental tests), and time-trial performance (3-60 min). When compression clothing was applied for recovery purposes after exercise, small to moderate effect sizes were observed in recovery of maximal strength and power, especially vertical-jump exercise; reductions in muscle swelling and perceived muscle pain; blood lactate removal; and increases in body temperature. These results suggest that the application of compression clothing may assist athletic performance and recovery in given situations with consideration of the effects magnitude and practical relevance.

Effects of local elastic compression on muscle strength, electromyographic, and mechanomyographic responses in the lower extremity

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of elastic compression on muscle strength, electromyographic (EMG), and mechanomyographic (MMG) responses of quadriceps femoris during isometric and isokinetic contractions. Twelve participants performed 5s isometric maximal voluntary contractions (MVC) and 25 consecutive and maximal isokinetic knee extensions at 60 and 300°/s with no (control, CC), medium (MC), and high (HC) compression applied to the muscle. The EMG and MMG signals were collected simultaneously with muscle isometric and isokinetic strength data. The results showed that the elevated compression did not improve peak torque, peak power, average power, total work, and regression of torque in the isometric and isokinetic contractions. However, the root mean squared value of EMG in both HC and MC significantly decreased compared with CC at 60 and 300°/s (p<0.01). Furthermore, the EMG mean power frequency in HC was significantly higher than that in CC at 60°/s (p<0.05) whereas no significant compression effect was found in the MMG mean power frequency. These findings provide preliminary evidence suggesting that the increase in local compression pressure may effectively increase muscle efficiency and this might be beneficial in reducing muscle fatigue during concentric isokinetic muscle contractions.

Endurance time is joint-specific: a modelling and meta-analysis investigation

Static task intensity-endurance time (ET) relationships (e.g. Rohmert's curve) were first reported decades ago. However, a comprehensive meta-analysis to compare experimentally-observed ETs across bodily regions has not been reported. We performed a systematic literature review of ETs for static contractions, developed joint-specific power and exponential models of the intensity-ET relationships, and compared these models between each joint (ankle, trunk, hand/grip, elbow, knee, and shoulder) and the pooled data (generalised curve). 194 publications were found, representing a total of 369 data points. The power model provided the best fit to the experimental data. Significant intensity-dependent ET differences were predicted between each pair of joints. Overall, the ankle was most fatigue-resistant, followed by the trunk, hand/grip, elbow, knee and finally the shoulder was most fatigable. We conclude ET varies systematically between joints, in some cases with large effect sizes. Thus, a single generalised ET model does not adequately represent fatigue across joints. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE: Rohmert curves have been used in ergonomic analyses of fatigue, as there are limited tools available to accurately predict force decrements. This study provides updated endurance time-intensity curves using a large meta-analysis of fatigue data. Specific models derived for five distinct joint regions should further increase prediction accuracy.

The Effects of Compression Garments on Intermittent Exercise Performance and Recovery on Consecutive Days

Purpose:

The aim of this study was to determine whether compression garments improve intermittent-sprint performance and aid performance or self-reported recovery from high-intensity efforts on consecutive days.

Methods:

Following familiarization, 14 male rugby players performed two randomized testing conditions (with or without garments) involving consecutive days of a simulated team sport exercise protocol, separated by 24 h of recovery within each condition and 2 weeks between conditions. Each day involved an 80-min high-intensity exercise circuit, with exercise performance determined by repeated 20-m sprints and peak power on a cart dynamometer (single-man scrum machine). Measures of nude mass, heart rate, skin and tympanic temperature, and blood lactate (La−) were recorded throughout each day; also, creatine kinase (CK) and muscle soreness were recorded each day and 48 h following exercise.

Results:

No differences (P = .20 to 0.40) were present between conditions on either day of the exercise protocol for repeated 20-m sprint efforts or peak power on a cart dynamometer. Heart rate, tympanic temperature, and body mass did not significantly differ between conditions; however, skin temperature was higher under the compression garments. Although no differences (P = .50) in La− or CK were present, participants felt reduced levels of perceived muscle soreness in the ensuing 48 h postexercise when wearing the garments (2.5 ± 1.7 vs 3.5 ± 2.1 for garment and control; P = .01).

Conclusions:

The use of compression garments did not improve or hamper simulated team-sport activity on consecutive days. Despite benefits of reduced self-reported muscle soreness when wearing garments during and following exercise each day, no improvements in performance or recovery were apparent.

Comparison of three types of full-body compression garments on throwing and repeat-sprint performance in cricket players

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effects of three types of full-body compression garments (Skins, Adidas and Under Armour) on repeat-sprint and throwing performance in cricket players.

METHODS

Following familiarisation, 10 male cricket players performed four randomised exercise sessions (3 garments and a control). Each session involved a 30 min repeat-sprint exercise protocol comprising 20 m sprints every minute, separated by submaximal exercise. Throwing tests included a pre-exercise and a postexercise maximal distance test and accuracy throwing tests. During each session, measures of heart rate, skin temperature, change in body mass, rate of perceived exertion and perceived muscle soreness were recorded. Capillary blood samples were analysed before and after exercise for lactate, pH, O(2) saturation and O(2) partial pressure, and 24 h after exercise for creatine kinase (CK). Ratings of perceived muscle soreness were also obtained 24 h after exercise.

RESULTS

No significant differences (p>0.05) were evident in repeat-sprint performance (10 m, 20 m time or total submaximal distance covered) or throwing performance (maximum distance or accuracy). No significant differences (p>0.05) were observed in heart rate, body mass change or blood measures during exercise. Significant differences (p<0.05) were observed by way of higher mean skin temperature, lower 24 h postexercise CK values and lower 24 h postexercise ratings of muscle soreness when wearing compression garments. Analysis between respective brands of compression garments revealed no statistical differences (p>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

No benefit was noted when wearing compression garments for repeat-sprint or throwing performance; however, the use of the garments as a recovery tool, when worn after exercise, may be beneficial to reduce postexercise trauma and perceived muscle soreness.