In-season strength maintenance training increases well-trained cyclists' performance

Strength Training Among Male Master Cyclists-Practices, Challenges, and Rationales

Background: Cycling performance declines with age due to reduced aerobic capacity, along with reductions in muscle mass and bone density. Strength training can help counter these effects. This study aims to explore the strength training practices, challenges, and decision-making rationale of male master cyclists to optimize performance and health as they age. Methods: A total of 555 male master cyclists aged 35 and above completed an online questionnaire, distributed via social media platforms, that included Likert-type, single- and multiple-selection, and open-ended questions. Participants were then divided into two age groups: 35-49 years (n = 359) and ≥50 years (n = 196). Analyses involved descriptive statistics, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests, Mann-Whitney U-tests, and chi-square tests, with qualitative data analyzed using content analysis. Results: More cyclists engaged in strength training during the off-/pre-season, with a significant reduction in both frequency and the number of cyclists engaging in strength training during the race season. The strength training practice was focused mainly on core and lower body, employing hypertrophy and maximal strength training methods. Key challenges included fatigue induced by strength training and limited time to perform strength training. The main rationale for the strength training revolved around improving cycling performance, reducing injury risk, and the health benefits of strength training. Both age categories, but the older group in particular, reported bone health as a primary rationale for strength training. Conclusions: While strength training offers performance and health benefits, issues of fatigue and time constraints remain substantial, suggesting the need for tailored training programs to improve adherence and effectiveness.

Fat-Free Mass Index in Sport: Normative Profiles and Applications for Collegiate Athletes

ABSTRACT

Jagim, AR, Harty, PS, Jones, MT, Fields, JB, Magee, M, Smith-Ryan, AE, Luedke, J, and Kerksick, CM. Fat-free mass index in sport: normative profiles and applications for collegiate athletes. J Strength Cond Res 38(9): 1687-1693, 2024-Recent concerns have been raised regarding the ethical considerations of conducting body composition assessments in sports. Specific apprehensions pertain to the inappropriate use of percent body fat and the limited application of the results to performance and recovery. Fat-free mass index (FFMI), a height-adjusted assessment of FFM, can serve as an alternative body composition metric to focus on in sports. Fat-free mass index provides valuable context regarding an optimal amount of FFM, accounting for skeletal frame and height while helping to qualify an athlete's FFM as low, moderate, or high. This review posits that shifting the focus of body composition measures to FFM can support more ideal targets across athletic seasons, careers, and the return to play after injury. In addition, a FFM focus may help change the perception of body composition assessment and how athletes perceive their current body because of the increased focus on the FFM compartment and the goal of maximizing tissue accrual, rather than focusing on fat loss. Fat-free mass index is calculated by dividing FFM (kg) by height (m 2 ) and can serve to normalize FFM, relative to height, and enable comparisons across athletes, sport types, and sex. Previous research has identified differences in FFMI across sex and among sport categories. Still, there is a need for more published data to develop optimal ranges for FFMI across sex, sports, and positions. As more data become available, FFMI has the potential to provide normative guidelines for optimal FFM development, performance, and injury risk reduction. The purpose of the current review was to summarize FFMI values across collegiate sport categories and competitive status to provide normative profiles, according to sex and sport type.

Concurrent Strength and Endurance Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Impact of Sex and Training Status

BACKGROUND

Many sports require maximal strength and endurance performance. Concurrent strength and endurance training can lead to suboptimal training adaptations. However, how adaptations differ between males and females is currently unknown. Additionally, current training status may affect training adaptations.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to assess sex-specific differences in adaptations in strength, power, muscle hypertrophy, and maximal oxygen consumption ( V ˙ O2max) to concurrent strength and endurance training in healthy adults. Second, we investigated how training adaptations are influenced by strength and endurance training status.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted according to PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines, and a Cochrane risk of bias was evaluated. ISI Web of science, PubMed/MEDLINE, and SPORTDiscus databases were searched using the following inclusion criteria: healthy adults aged 18-50 years, intervention period of ≥ 4 weeks, and outcome measures were defined as upper- and lower-body strength, power, hypertrophy, and/or V ˙ O2max. A meta-analysis was performed using a random-effects model and reported in standardized mean differences.

RESULTS

In total, 59 studies with 1346 participants were included. Concurrent training showed blunted lower-body strength adaptations in males, but not in females (male: - 0.43, 95% confidence interval [- 0.64 to - 0.22], female: 0.08 [- 0.34 to 0.49], group difference: P = 0.03). No sex differences were observed for changes in upper-body strength (P = 0.67), power (P = 0.37), or V ˙ O2max (P = 0.13). Data on muscle hypertrophy were insufficient to draw any conclusions. For training status, untrained but not trained or highly trained endurance athletes displayed lower V ˙ O2max gains with concurrent training (P = 0.04). For other outcomes, no differences were found between untrained and trained individuals, both for strength and endurance training status.

CONCLUSIONS

Concurrent training results in small interference for lower-body strength adaptations in males, but not in females. Untrained, but not trained or highly trained endurance athletes demonstrated impaired improvements in V ˙ O2max following concurrent training. More studies on females and highly strength-trained and endurance-trained athletes are warranted.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

PROSPERO: CRD42022370894.

Best practice recommendations for body composition considerations in sport to reduce health and performance risks: a critical review, original survey and expert opinion by a subgroup of the IOC consensus on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs)

BACKGROUND

The assessment of body composition (BC) in sport raises concern for athlete health, especially where an overfocus on being lighter or leaner increases the risk of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) and disordered eating.

METHODS

We undertook a critical review of the effect of BC on performance (29 longitudinal, prospective or intervention studies) and explored current practice related to BC considerations via a follow-up to a 2013 internationally distributed survey.

RESULTS

The review found that a higher level of body fat was negatively associated with endurance performance, while a gain in muscle mass resulted in performance benefits across sports. BC did not contribute to early talent identification, and no unique cut-off to signify a performance advantage for BC was identified. BC appears to be one of an array of variables impacting performance, and its influence should not be overstated. The survey (125 practitioners, 61 sports and 26 countries) showed subtle changes in BC considerations over time, such as an increased role for sport dietitian/nutrition practitioners as BC measurers (2013: 54%, 2022: 78%); less emphasis on reporting of body fat percentage (2013: 68%, 2022: 46%) and reduced frequency of BC assessment if ≥every fourth week (2013: 18%, 2022: 5%). Respondents remained concerned about a problematic focus on BC (2013: 69%, 2022: 78%). To address these findings, we provide detailed recommendations for BC considerations, including an overview of preferable BC methodology.

CONCLUSIONS

The 'best practice' guidelines stress the importance of a multidisciplinary athlete health and performance team, and the treatment of BC data as confidential medical information. The guidelines provide a health focus around BC, aiming to reduce the associated burden of disordered eating, problematic low energy availability and REDs.

Training cessation and subsequent retraining of a world-class female Olympic sailor after Tokyo 2020: A case study

Olympic sailing is a complex sport where sailors are required to predict and interpret weather conditions while facing high physical and physiological demands. While it is essential for sailors to develop physical and physiological capabilities toward major competition, monitoring training status following the competition is equally important to minimize the magnitude of detraining and facilitate retraining. Despite its long history in the modern Olympics, reports on world-class sailors' training status and performance characteristics across different periodization phases are currently lacking. This case study aimed to determine the influence of training cessation and subsequent retraining on performance parameters in a world-class female sailor. A 31-year old female sailor, seventh in the Women's Sailing 470 medal race in Tokyo 2020, completely stopped training for 4 weeks following the Olympics, and resumed low-intensity training for 3 weeks. Over these 7 weeks, 12.7 and 5.3% reductions were observed in 6 s peak cycling power output and jump height, respectively, with a 4.7% decrease in maximal aerobic power output. Seven weeks of training cessation-retraining period induced clear reductions in explosive power production capacities but less prominent decreases in aerobic capacity. The current findings are likely attributed to the sailor's training characteristics during the retraining period.

A Systematic Review of the Effects of Strength and Power Training on Performance in Cross-Country Skiers

To identify and evaluate current scientific literature concerning the effect of strength, power and speed training on relevant physiological and biomechanical characteristics and performance of competitive cross-country skiers (XCS), the databases Scopus and PubMed were searched systematically for original articles in peer-reviewed journals. Of the 599 studies retrieved, 12 met the inclusion criteria (i.e., assessment of outcome measures with relevance for XCS performance; involvement of traditional resistance training; application of external resistance to the body; intervention longer than 4 weeks; randomized controlled trial). The methodological rigor of each study was assessed using the PEDro scale, which were mostly poor-to-fair, with good methodological quality in only two articles. All of the strength/power/speed interventions improved 1RM (0.8-6.8 ES), but findings with respect to jump performance, ability to generate force rapidly and body composition were mixed. Interventions demonstrated moderate-to-high ES on XCS specific performance compared with control (mean ES = 0.56), but the pattern observed was not consistent. None of the interventions changed anaerobic capacity, while in most studies VO_2max was either unchanged or increased. Work economy or efficiency was enhanced by most of the interventions. In conclusion, present research indicates that strength training improves general strength, with moderate effects on XCS performance, and inconclusive effects on work economy and VO_2max/VO_2peak. Strength training with high loads, explosive strength training, or sprint interval training seem to be promising tools for modern XCS training. Future investigations should include long-term (e.g., >6 months) strength training to allow sufficient time for increased strength and speed to influence actual XCS performance. Moreover, they should include both sexes, as well as upper- and lower-body muscles (trained separately and together) and employ free weights and core training. Methodological differences and limitations highlighted here may explain discrepancies in findings and should be taken into consideration in future research in this area.

Case Report: Effects of Multiple Seasons of Heavy Strength Training on Muscle Strength and Cycling Sprint Power in Elite Cyclists

Sprint performance is critical for endurance performance in sports characterized by multiple accelerations like a cross-country Olympic mountain bike (XCO MTB) race. There are indications that 10–25 weeks of heavy strength training (HST) can improve cycling sprint power in cyclists. However, there is a lack of data on the effect of continuing HST across several seasons. In the first part of this case report, two elite cyclists performed HST across two preparatory periods (i.e., 1.5 years), while two others continued with endurance training only. HST induced a mean increase in leg press force and cycling sprint power of 16% after the first preparatory period (November to April), which was maintained during the competition period. After the next preparatory period a further increase from the first test was achieved (22 and 19%, respectively). The two cyclists with no HST had no changes in leg press force and cycling sprint power. The second part contains data from two of the cyclists from the first part. One of them continued with HST for 2 more years and achieved a continuous increase in leg press force during all four preparatory periods, ending up with a total increase of 44% after 3.5 years, while the development of cycling sprint power had more variation with an apparent plateau from the third to fourth preparatory periods, ending up with an improvement of 25%. The other cyclist did not perform HST in the first part but started with HST and performed this across the last two preparatory periods. After two preparatory periods with HST (i.e., 1.5 years), the increased leg press force and cycling sprint power were 24 and 22%, respectively, which was in the same range as the improvement observed after 1.5 years of HST in the first part of this case report. The present data extend previous short-term studies indicating that HST can give reasonable muscle strength improvements in elite cyclists across multiple preparatory periods. Furthermore, the present data indicate that HST adaptations can be maintained across multiple competition periods. Cycling sprint power seems to approximately follow the development of leg press performance.

Effects of Resistance Training Cessation on Cycling Performance in Well-Trained Cyclists: An Exploratory Study

ABSTRACT

Bláfoss, R, Rikardo, J, Andersen, AØ, Hvid, LG, Andersen, LL, Jensen, K, Christensen, PM, Kvorning, T, and Aagaard, P. Effects of resistance training cessation on cycling performance in well-trained cyclists: an exploratory study. J Strength Cond Res 36(3): 796-804, 2022-Supplementary (i.e., concurrent) resistance training can enhance cycling performance among competitive cyclists. However, a lack of knowledge exists about the retention (decay profile) in mechanical muscle function and cycling performance after concurrent resistance and endurance training. The present exploratory intervention study investigated the effect of 6 weeks of resistance training cessation when preceded by 8 weeks of concurrent resistance and endurance training on mechanical muscle function and cycling performance in 9 male well-trained competitive cyclists (V̇o2max = 66 ± 7 ml·min-1·kg-1). Cyclists performed periodized resistance training targeting leg and core muscles for 8 weeks as a supplement to their normal endurance (cycling) training. This was followed by 6 weeks of endurance training only (retention period) leading up to the start of the competitive season. Maximal leg extensor power, isometric leg extensor strength (maximal voluntary contraction [MVC]), rate of force development (RFD), and long-term cycling performance (2-hour submaximal cycling at 55% of Wmax), followed by 5-minute max cycling were evaluated. After 8 weeks of concurrent resistance and endurance training, leg extensor power, MVC, and RFD increased by 12, 15, and 17%, respectively while mean power output (W) during 5-minute max cycling increased by 7% (p < 0.05). Training-induced gains in MVC and 5-minute max cycling power were retained after 6-week cessation of resistance training (p < 0.05). These findings indicate that competitive cyclists can focus on cycling training alone for at least 6 weeks leading up to competition without losing attained gains in maximal muscle strength and cycling performance achieved by preceding periods of concurrent resistance training.

Professional cyclists have lower levels of bone markers than amateurs. Is there a risk of osteoporosis in cyclist?

Currently, there is a greater number of amateurs that practice cycling. However, there is no clear evidence regarding bone health in amateur cyclists compared to professional cyclists, as the latter has shown to have lower bone mineral content and density. Therefore, the aim of this study was to identify the differences in bone variables between professional (PRO) and amateur (AMA) road cyclists, and to see if these differences were related to differences in cycling performance. A parallel trial was carried out with 15 AMA and 10 PRO cyclists. All cyclists visited the laboratory twice: 1) in a fasted state, body composition measured by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and 2) physiological variables measured using an incremental test until exhaustion. Significantly lower values were found in bone mineral density, bone mineral content and fat free mass in PRO compared to AMA (p < 0.05). In addition, significantly higher power was produced in ventilatory thresholds 1 and 2 (VT1 and VT2) and VO_2MAX in PRO compared to AMA (p < 0.05). Overall, PRO cyclists had lower values in bone health and muscle mass but better results in performance compared to AMA.

Morning Preconditioning Exercise Does Not Increase Afternoon Performance in Competitive Runners

PURPOSE

Preconditioning exercise is a widely used strategy believed to enhance performance later the same day. The authors examined the influence of preconditioning exercises 6 hours prior to a time-to-exhaustion (TTE) test during treadmill running.

METHODS

Ten male competitive runners (age = 26 [3] y, height = 184 [8] cm, weight = 73 [9] kg, maximum oxygen consumption = 72 [7] mL·kg-1·min-1) did a preconditioning session of running (RUN) or resistance exercise (RES) or no morning exercise (NoEx) in a randomized order, separated by >72 hours. The RUN consisted of 15 minutes of low-intensity running and 4 × 15 seconds at race pace (21-24 km·h-1) on a treadmill; RES involved 5 minutes of low-intensity running and 2 × 3 repetitions of isokinetic 1-leg shallow squats with maximal mobilization. Following a 6-hour break, electrically evoked force (m. vastus medialis), countermovement jump, running economy, and a TTE of approximately 2 minutes were examined.

RESULTS

Relative to NoEx, no difference was seen for RUN or RES in TTE (mean ± 95% CI: -1.3% ± 3.4% and -0.5% ± 6.0%) or running economy (0.2% ± 1.6% and 1.9% ± 2.7%; all Ps > .05). Jump height was not different for the RUN condition (1.0% ± 2.7%]) but tended to be higher in RES than in the NoEx condition (1.5% ± 1.6%, P = .07). The electrically evoked force tended to reveal low-frequency fatigue (reduced 20:50-Hz peak force ratio) only after RES compared to NoEx (-4.5% ± 4.6%, P = .06).

CONCLUSION

The RUN or RES 6 hours prior to approximately 2 minutes of TTE running test did not improve performance in competitive runners.

A Comparison of the Effect of Strength Training on Cycling Performance between Men and Women

During the last decade numerous review articles have been published on how concurrent strength and endurance training affect cycling performance. However, none of these have reviewed if there are any sex differences in the effects of concurrent training on cycling performance, and most research in this area has been performed with male cyclists. Thus, the aim of the current paper is to review the scientific literature on the effect of concurrent training on cycling performance in male and female cyclists with a special emphasis on potential sex differences. The results indicate that both male and female cyclists experience a similar beneficial effect from concurrent training on cycling performance and its physiological determinants compared to normal endurance training only. Some data indicate that women have a larger effect on cycling economy, but more studies are needed to explore this further. Furthermore, the adaptations to strength training thought to be responsible for the beneficial effects on cycling performance seem to be very similar between men and women. Interestingly, increased muscle cross-sectional area in the main locomotor muscles seems to be an important adaptation for improved performance, and, contrary to popular belief, cyclists should aim for increased muscle cross-sectional area when adding strength training to their normal training. We conclude that both male and female cyclists can improve their cycling performance by adding strength training to their normal training.

Medical recommendations for home-confined footballers' training during the COVID-19 pandemic: from evidence to practical application

In early 2020, the world is facing a global emergency called COVID-19. Many professional footballers around the world are home confined. The maintenance of physical capacity is a fundamental requirement for the athlete, so the training sessions must be adapted to this unique situation. Specific recommendations must be followed concerning the type of training, its intensity, the precautions that have to be followed to avoid the possibility of contagion, and the restrictions in accordance with the presence of any symptoms. This article analyses the available scientific evidence in order to recommend a practical approach.

Comparison of effects of training order of explosive strength and plyometrics training on different physical abilities in adolescent handball players

While both plyometric and traditional resistance training methods are beneficial to athletic performance in a wide range of sports, their efficacy regarding training order has yet to be determined in a periodized training programme. Therefore, this study compared the effects of a 12-week training period where explosive strength training (six weeks) preceded plyometric training (six weeks), or vice versa. Forty-two competitive male (n = 12) and female (n = 30) adolescent handball players (age 14.9 ± 0.5 years, body mass 64.1 ± 9.1 kg, height 1.71 ± 0.09 m) conducted explosive strength training for six weeks followed by six weeks of plyometric training or vice versa. Variables included a 30 m sprint, a change of direction test, countermovement jump (CMJ) with and without arm swing, load-velocity back squat assessment, overhead throwing velocity with and without preliminary steps, and the Yo-Yo intermittent recovery test level 1 (Yo-Yo IR1). Both groups experienced similar improvements in the CMJ, change of direction and load-velocity squat assessments from pre- to posttest (p ≤ 0.013, η ² = 0.194-0.378). Conversely, no improvements were observed in the Yo-Yo IR1, 30 m sprint or throwing velocity tests, regardless of group (p ≥ 0.081). No main effect of training order was observed for any of the tests employed (p ≥ 0.31). Training order does not appear to play a noticeable role in the physical development of young handball players. Therefore, practitioners could focus on implementing variations in exercise and loading to benefit athlete adherence and correspond to present needs.

Analyzing the effects of combined small-sided games and strength and power training on the fitness status of under-19 elite football players

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was twofold: 1) to characterize a common microcycle considering both internal and external training loads; and 2) to identify the effects of small-sided games (SSGs) and of power and strength training on the fitness status of football players.

METHODS

Fifteen male football players (age: 18.55±0.39 years) participated in this study. Ninety-two consecutive training sessions were monitored and analyzed over a period of nineteen weeks. Rating of perceived exertion (RPE ) was used as an internal load marker, and the distances covered at different speed thresholds and accelerations/decelerations were used as external load markers to characterize the common microcycle. Participants' body composition, vertical jumping ability, maximal strength, speed, and agility were assessed twice before and after the training monitoring process.

RESULTS

The results revealed that match day -5 (MD-5) and MD-1 were associated with the lowest RPE scores (4.2 and 3.8 A.U., respectively). MD-4 and MD-3 were associated with the highest RPE values (9.2 and 8.8 A.U., respectively). Meaningful changes in RPE were found between training days. External load monitoring revealed that MD-4 had the highest values of accelerations and decelerations >2 m/s2/min (4.22 and 3.17, respectively) and MD-3 had the highest values of distance covered at high intensity (6.11 m/s2/min). Meaningful moderate improvements in jumping performance (d=0.90) and maximal strength parameters (d=0.83) were also found between assessments.

CONCLUSIONS

It was identified that the concurrent approach had meaningful impacts on the fitness development of players and should be considered by coaches for future training interventions.

Training Considerations for Optimising Endurance Development: An Alternate Concurrent Training Perspective

Whilst the "acute hypothesis" was originally coined to describe the detrimental effects of concurrent training on strength development, similar physiological processes may occur when endurance training adaptations are compromised. There is a growing body of research indicating that typical resistance exercises impair neuromuscular function and endurance performance during periods of resistance training-induced muscle damage. Furthermore, recent evidence suggests that the attenuating effects of resistance training-induced muscle damage on endurance performance are influenced by exercise intensity, exercise mode, exercise sequence, recovery and contraction velocity of resistance training. By understanding the influence that training variables have on the level of resistance training-induced muscle damage and its subsequent attenuating effects on endurance performance, concurrent training programs could be prescribed in such a way that minimises fatigue between modes of training and optimises the quality of endurance training sessions. Therefore, this review will provide considerations for concurrent training prescription for endurance development based on scientific evidence. Furthermore, recommendations will be provided for future research by identifying training variables that may impact on endurance development as a result of concurrent training.

Study on physical fitness factors affecting race-class of Korea racing cyclists

The purpose of this study is to compare and analyze the difference of isokinetic muscle functions, anaerobic capabilities, pedaling power and maximum strength according to race-class of Korea racing cyclists. The participants in this study were 57 racing cyclist candidates who graduated from the Korea racing school. One year after graduation, we confirmed race-class of candidates and they were divided into three groups: the first-class racer group (FC, n=14), second-class racer group (SC, n=29), third-class racer group (TC, n=14). The isokinetic muscle strength of trunk and knee flexion/extension was measured using HUMAC NORM and basic physical strength such as squat and bench press was analyzed by Ariel device. As results of this study, % Fat (percentage of body fat) in FC group was the lowest compared to other groups. Isokinetic knee flexion strength was higher in FC group than SC and TC racer groups. Peak and average pedaling power as well as maximum muscle strength were significantly higher in FC group than in other groups. Our findings suggest new evidence that pedaling power and isokinetic muscle strength might be closely associated with race-class of Korea racing cyclists.

Effects of Strength Training on Olympic Time-Based Sport Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effect of strength training on Olympic time-based sports (OTBS) time-trial performance and provide an estimate of the impact of type of strength training, age, training status, and training duration on OTBS time-trial performance.

METHODS

A search on 3 electronic databases was conducted. The analysis comprised 32 effects in 28 studies. Posttest time-trial performance of intervention and control group from each study was used to estimate the standardized magnitude of impact of strength training on OTBS time-trial performance.

RESULTS

Strength training had a moderate positive effect on OTBS time-trial performance (effect size = 0.59, P < .01). Subgroup meta-analysis showed that heavy weight training (effect size = 0.30, P = .01) produced a significant effect, whereas other modes did not induce significant effects. Training status as factorial covariate was significant for well-trained athletes (effect size = 0.62, P = .04), but not for other training levels. Meta-regression analysis yielded nonsignificant relationship with age of the participants recruited (β = -0.04; 95% confidence interval, -0.08 to 0.004; P = .07) and training duration (β = -0.05; 95% confidence interval, -0.11 to 0.02; P = .15) as continuous covariates.

CONCLUSION

Heavy weight training is an effective method for improving OTBS time-trial performance. Strength training has greatest impact on well-trained athletes regardless of age and training duration.

Comparison of Short-Sprint and Heavy Strength Training on Cycling Performance

Purpose

To compare the effects of short-sprint training (SST) and heavy-strength training (HST) following a 4-week strength-training period on sprint and endurance capacities in well-trained cyclists.

Methods

Twenty-eight competitive cyclists (age 29 ± 6 years) with maximal oxygen uptake () of 61.1 ± 5.9 mL⋅min^-1⋅kg^-1 participated. After a 4-weeks preparation strength-training period, the participants were randomized to add either HST or SST to their usual endurance training for the subsequent 6 weeks. Body composition, and power output at blood lactate concentration ([La^-]) of 4 mmol⋅L^-1, as well as a 100 min cycling test including 6 and 30-s sprints, 60 min cycling at [La^-] of 2 mmol⋅L^-1 and 5-min all-out cycling were performed before the 4-week preparation strength-training period, and before and after the 6-week intervention period. In addition, 1 repetition maximum (RM) in half-squat and 55-m maximal sprints on the cyclists' own bikes were measured before and after the 6-week intervention.

Results

SST was superior to HST in 6-s sprint performance, both in a fresh state (4.7 ± 2.6% vs. 1.1 ± 3.5%) and after prolong cycling (6.1 ± 1.8% vs. 1.8 ± 4.2%), in 30-s sprint (3.7 ± 2.8% vs. 1.3 ± 2.5%) and in 55-m seated sprint on own bike (4.3 ± 2.1% vs. 0.2 ± 1.8%) (all p < 0.002). HST induced a larger 1RM improvement in the half-squat test than SST (9.3 ± 3.6% vs. -3.9 ± 3.8%; p < 0.001). No group differences were revealed in the 5-min all-out test, , power output at 4 mmol⋅L^-1 [La^-], or in gross efficiency.

Conclusion

SST led to a greater increase in average and peak power output on all sprint tests compared to HST, whereas HST led to a greater increase in maximal strength. No group differences were found in relative changes in endurance capacities. Altogether, our results show a high degree of specificity in the adaptations of both SST and HST.

Comparison of Short-Sprint and Heavy Strength Training on Cycling Performance

PURPOSE

To compare the effects of short-sprint training (SST) and heavy-strength training (HST) following a 4-week strength-training period on sprint and endurance capacities in well-trained cyclists.

METHODS

Twenty-eight competitive cyclists (age 29 ± 6 years) with maximal oxygen uptake () of 61.1 ± 5.9 mL⋅min^-1⋅kg^-1 participated. After a 4-weeks preparation strength-training period, the participants were randomized to add either HST or SST to their usual endurance training for the subsequent 6 weeks. Body composition, and power output at blood lactate concentration ([La^-]) of 4 mmol⋅L^-1, as well as a 100 min cycling test including 6 and 30-s sprints, 60 min cycling at [La^-] of 2 mmol⋅L^-1 and 5-min all-out cycling were performed before the 4-week preparation strength-training period, and before and after the 6-week intervention period. In addition, 1 repetition maximum (RM) in half-squat and 55-m maximal sprints on the cyclists' own bikes were measured before and after the 6-week intervention.

RESULTS

SST was superior to HST in 6-s sprint performance, both in a fresh state (4.7 ± 2.6% vs. 1.1 ± 3.5%) and after prolong cycling (6.1 ± 1.8% vs. 1.8 ± 4.2%), in 30-s sprint (3.7 ± 2.8% vs. 1.3 ± 2.5%) and in 55-m seated sprint on own bike (4.3 ± 2.1% vs. 0.2 ± 1.8%) (all p < 0.002). HST induced a larger 1RM improvement in the half-squat test than SST (9.3 ± 3.6% vs. -3.9 ± 3.8%; p < 0.001). No group differences were revealed in the 5-min all-out test, , power output at 4 mmol⋅L^-1 [La^-], or in gross efficiency.

CONCLUSION

SST led to a greater increase in average and peak power output on all sprint tests compared to HST, whereas HST led to a greater increase in maximal strength. No group differences were found in relative changes in endurance capacities. Altogether, our results show a high degree of specificity in the adaptations of both SST and HST.

Effects of Strength Training on the Physiological Determinants of Middle- and Long-Distance Running Performance: A Systematic Review

Background

Middle- and long-distance running performance is constrained by several important aerobic and anaerobic parameters. The efficacy of strength training (ST) for distance runners has received considerable attention in the literature. However, to date, the results of these studies have not been fully synthesized in a review on the topic.

Objectives

This systematic review aimed to provide a comprehensive critical commentary on the current literature that has examined the effects of ST modalities on the physiological determinants and performance of middle- and long-distance runners, and offer recommendations for best practice.

Methods

Electronic databases were searched using a variety of key words relating to ST exercise and distance running. This search was supplemented with citation tracking. To be eligible for inclusion, a study was required to meet the following criteria: participants were middle- or long-distance runners with ≥ 6 months experience, a ST intervention (heavy resistance training, explosive resistance training, or plyometric training) lasting ≥ 4 weeks was applied, a running only control group was used, data on one or more physiological variables was reported. Two independent assessors deemed that 24 studies fully met the criteria for inclusion. Methodological rigor was assessed for each study using the PEDro scale.

Results

PEDro scores revealed internal validity of 4, 5, or 6 for the studies reviewed. Running economy (RE) was measured in 20 of the studies and generally showed improvements (2–8%) compared to a control group, although this was not always the case. Time trial (TT) performance (1.5–10 km) and anaerobic speed qualities also tended to improve following ST. Other parameters [maximal oxygen uptake (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{{2{ \hbox{max} }}}$$\end{document}V˙O2max), velocity at \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\dot{V}{\text{O}}_{{2{ \hbox{max} }}}$$\end{document}V˙O2max, blood lactate, body composition] were typically unaffected by ST.

Conclusion

Whilst there was good evidence that ST improves RE, TT, and sprint performance, this was not a consistent finding across all works that were reviewed. Several important methodological differences and limitations are highlighted, which may explain the discrepancies in findings and should be considered in future investigations in this area. Importantly for the distance runner, measures relating to body composition are not negatively impacted by a ST intervention. The addition of two to three ST sessions per week, which include a variety of ST modalities are likely to provide benefits to the performance of middle- and long-distance runners.

Adaptations to Endurance and Strength Training

The capacity for human exercise performance can be enhanced with prolonged exercise training, whether it is endurance- or strength-based. The ability to adapt through exercise training allows individuals to perform at the height of their sporting event and/or maintain peak physical condition throughout the life span. Our continued drive to understand how to prescribe exercise to maximize health and/or performance outcomes means that our knowledge of the adaptations that occur as a result of exercise continues to evolve. This review will focus on current and new insights into endurance and strength-training adaptations and will highlight important questions that remain as far as how we adapt to training.

Power Production and Biochemical Markers of Metabolic Stress and Muscle Damage Following a Single Bout of Short-Sprint and Heavy Strength Exercise in Well-Trained Cyclists

Purpose: Although strength and sprint training are widely used methods in competitive cycling, no previous studies have compared the acute responses and recovery rates following such sessions among highly trained cyclists. The primary aim of the current study was to compare power production and biochemical markers of metabolic stress and muscle damage following a session of heavy strength (HS) and short-sprint training (SS).

Methods: Eleven well-trained male cyclists (18 ± 2 years with maximal oxygen uptake of 67.2 ± 5.0 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) completed one HS session and one SS session in a randomized order, separated by 48 h. Power production and biochemical variables were measured at baseline and at different time points during the first 45 h post exercise.

Results: Lactate and human growth hormone were higher 5 min, 30 min and 1 h post the SS compared to the HS session (all p ≤ 0.019). Myoglobin was higher following the HS than the SS session 5 min, 30 min and 1 h post exercise (all p ≤ 0.005), while creatine kinase (CK) was higher following the HS session 21 and 45 h post exercise (p ≤ 0.038). Counter movement jump and power production during 4 sec sprint returned to baseline levels at 23 and 47 h with no difference between the HS and SS session, whereas the delayed muscle soreness score was higher 45 h following the HS compared to the SS session (p = 0.010).

Conclusion: Our findings indicate that SS training provides greater metabolic stress than HS training, whereas HS training leads to more muscle damage compared to that caused by SS training. The ability to produce power remained back to baseline already 23 h after both training sessions, indicating maintained performance levels although higher CK level and muscle soreness were present 45 h post the HS training session.

Heavy strength training improves running and cycling performance following prolonged submaximal work in well-trained female athletes

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of adding heavy strength training to female duathletes' normal endurance training on both cycling and running performance. Nineteen well‐trained female duathletes (VO_2max cycling: 54 ± 3 ml∙kg⁻¹∙min⁻¹, VO_2max running: 53 ± 3 ml∙kg⁻¹∙min⁻¹) were randomly assigned to either normal endurance training (E, n = 8) or normal endurance training combined with strength training (E+S, n = 11). The strength training consisted of four lower body exercises [3 × 4‐10 repetition maximum (RM)] twice a week for 11 weeks. Running and cycling performance were assessed using 5‐min all‐out tests, performed immediately after prolonged periods of submaximal work (3 h cycling or 1.5 h running). E+S increased 1RM in half squat (45 ± 22%) and lean mass in the legs (3.1 ± 4.0%) more than E. Performance during the 5‐min all‐out test increased in both cycling (7.0 ± 4.5%) and running (4.7 ± 6.0%) in E+S, whereas no changes occurred in E. The changes in running performance were different between groups. E+S reduced oxygen consumption and heart rate during the final 2 h of prolonged cycling, whereas no changes occurred in E. No changes occurred during the prolonged running in any group. Adding strength training to normal endurance training in well‐trained female duathletes improved both running and cycling performance when tested immediately after prolonged submaximal work.

10 weeks of heavy strength training improves performance-related measurements in elite cyclists

Elite cyclists have often a limited period of time available during their short preparation phase to focus on development of maximal strength; therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of 10-week heavy strength training on lean lower-body mass, leg strength, determinants of cycling performance and cycling performance in elite cyclists. Twelve cyclists performed heavy strength training and normal endurance training (E&S) while 8 other cyclists performed normal endurance training only (E). Following the intervention period E&S had a larger increase in maximal isometric half squat, mean power output during a 30-s Wingate sprint (P < 0.05) and a tendency towards larger improvement in power output at 4 mmol ∙ L^-1 [la^-] than E (P = 0.068). There were no significant difference between E&S and E in changes in 40-min all-out trial (4 ± 6% vs. -1 ± 6%, respectively, P = 0.13). These beneficial effects may encourage elite cyclists to perform heavy strength training and the short period of only 10 weeks should make it executable even in the compressed training and competition schedule of elite cyclists.

Effects of Heavy Strength Training on Running Performance and Determinants of Running Performance in Female Endurance Athletes

Purpose

The purpose of the current study was to investigate the effects of adding strength training to normal endurance training on running performance and running economy in well-trained female athletes. We hypothesized that the added strength training would improve performance and running economy through altered stiffness of the muscle-tendon complex of leg extensors.

Methods

Nineteen female endurance athletes [maximal oxygen consumption (VO_2max): 53±3 ml∙kg^-1∙min^-1, 5.8 h weekly endurance training] were randomly assigned to either normal endurance training (E, n = 8) or normal endurance training combined with strength training (E+S, n = 11). The strength training consisted of four leg exercises [3 x 4–10 repetition maximum (RM)], twice a week for 11 weeks. Muscle strength, 40 min all-out running distance, running performance determinants and patellar tendon stiffness were measured before and after the intervention.

Results

E+S increased 1RM in leg exercises (40 ± 15%) and maximal jumping height in counter movement jump (6 ± 6%) and squat jump (9 ± 7%, p < 0.05). This was accompanied by increased muscle fiber cross sectional area of both fiber type I (13 ± 7%) and fiber type II (31 ± 20%) in m. vastus lateralis (p < 0.05), with no change in capillary density in m. vastus lateralis or the stiffness of the patellar tendon. Neither E+S nor E changed running economy, fractional utilization of VO_2max or VO_2max. There were also no change in running distance during a 40 min all-out running test in neither of the groups.

Conclusion

Adding heavy strength training to endurance training did not affect 40 min all-out running performance or running economy compared to endurance training only.

A time-saving method to assess power output at lactate threshold in well-trained and elite cyclists

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between lactate threshold (LT) as a percentage of maximal oxygen consumption (V[Combining Dot Above]O2max) and power output at LT (LTW) and also to investigate to what extent V[Combining Dot Above]O2max, oxygen cost of cycling (CC), and maximal aerobic power (MAP) determine LTW in cycling to develop a new time-saving model for testing LTW. To do this, 108 male competitive cyclists with an average V[Combining Dot Above]O2max of 65.2 ± 7.4 ml·kg·min and an average LTW of 274 ± 43 W were tested for V[Combining Dot Above]O2max, LT %V[Combining Dot Above]O2max, LTW, MAP, and CC on a test ergometer cycle. The product of MAP and individual LT in %V[Combining Dot Above]O2max was found to be a good determinant of LTW (R = 0.98, p < 0.0001). However, LT in %V[Combining Dot Above]O2max was found to be a poor determinant of LTW (R = 0.39, p < 0.0001). Based on these findings, we have suggested a new time-saving method for calculating LTW in well-trained cyclists. The benefits from this model come both from tracking LTW during training interventions and from regularly assessing training status in competitive cyclists. Briefly, this method is based on the present findings that LTW depends on LT in %V[Combining Dot Above]O2max, V[Combining Dot Above]O2max, and CC and may after an initial test session reduce the time for the subsequent testing of LTW by as much as 50% without the need for blood samples.

Age difference in efficiency of locomotion and maximal power output in well-trained triathletes

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to examine the influence of age on cycling efficiency and sprint power output in well-trained endurance masters athletes.

METHODS

The investigation was conducted on 60 healthy well-trained triathletes separated into six separate groups (n = 10) depending on age: 20-29 years old; 30-39 years old; 40-49 years old; 50-59 years old; 60-69 years old; 70 years old. Each participant attended the laboratory on three separate occasions to perform (1) an incremental cycling test, (2) maximal peak sprint power test, involving three 5-s sprint efforts (3) and a 10-min sub-maximal cycling test for determination of cycling efficiency.

RESULTS

Cycling efficiency decreased beyond 50 years (50-59 years compared with 20-29 years: -7.3 ± 1.8%; p < 0.05) and continued to decrease beyond 60 years (60-69 years compared with 50-59 years: -10.7 ± 2.4%; p < 0.05), no further decrease was observed after 70 years. A continuous impairment in maximal sprint power output was observed after the age of 50 years leading to an overall decrease of 36% between 20-29 years and >70 years. Significant positive relationships were observed between maximal sprint power output and both cycling efficiency (r(2) = 0.64, p < 0.05) and maximal aerobic power (r(2) = 0.42 and p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The present data indicates a significant effect of ageing on cycling efficiency and maximal sprint power output after 50 years and a significant relationship was found between these two parameters.

The road to gold: training and peaking characteristics in the year prior to a gold medal endurance performance

Purpose

To describe training variations across the annual cycle in Olympic and World Champion endurance athletes, and determine whether these athletes used tapering strategies in line with recommendations in the literature.

Methods

Eleven elite XC skiers and biathletes (4 male; 28±1 yr, 85±5 mL. min⁻¹. kg⁻¹, 7 female, 25±4 yr, 73±3 mL. min⁻¹. kg⁻¹) reported one year of day-to-day training leading up to the most successful competition of their career. Training data were divided into periodization and peaking phases and distributed into training forms, intensity zones and endurance activity forms.

Results

Athletes trained ∼800 h/500 sessions.year⁻¹, including ∼500 h. year⁻¹ of sport-specific training. Ninety-four percent of all training was executed as aerobic endurance training. Of this, ∼90% was low intensity training (LIT, below the first lactate threshold) and 10% high intensity training (HIT, above the first lactate threshold) by time. Categorically, 23% of training sessions were characterized as HIT with primary portions executed at or above the first lactate turn point. Training volume and specificity distribution conformed to a traditional periodization model, but absolute volume of HIT remained stable across phases. However, HIT training patterns tended to become more polarized in the competition phase. Training volume, frequency and intensity remained unchanged from pre-peaking to peaking period, but there was a 32±15% (P<.01) volume reduction from the preparation period to peaking phase.

Conclusions

The annual training data for these Olympic and World champion XC skiers and biathletes conforms to previously reported training patterns of elite endurance athletes. During the competition phase, training became more sport-specific, with 92% performed as XC skiing. However, they did not follow suggested tapering practice derived from short-term experimental studies. Only three out of 11 athletes took a rest day during the final 5 days prior to their most successful competition.

Strength training improves performance and pedaling characteristics in elite cyclists

The purpose was to investigate the effect of 25 weeks heavy strength training in young elite cyclists. Nine cyclists performed endurance training and heavy strength training (ES) while seven cyclists performed endurance training only (E). ES, but not E, resulted in increases in isometric half squat performance, lean lower body mass, peak power output during Wingate test, peak aerobic power output (W(max)), power output at 4 mmol L(-1)[la(-)], mean power output during 40-min all-out trial, and earlier occurrence of peak torque during the pedal stroke (P < 0.05). ES achieved superior improvements in W(max) and mean power output during 40-min all-out trial compared with E (P < 0.05). The improvement in 40-min all-out performance was associated with the change toward achieving peak torque earlier in the pedal stroke (r = 0.66, P < 0.01). Neither of the groups displayed alterations in VO2max or cycling economy. In conclusion, heavy strength training leads to improved cycling performance in elite cyclists as evidenced by a superior effect size of ES training vs E training on relative improvements in power output at 4 mmol L(-1)[la(-)], peak power output during 30-s Wingate test, W(max), and mean power output during 40-min all-out trial.

Optimizing strength training for running and cycling endurance performance: A review

Here we report on the effect of combining endurance training with heavy or explosive strength training on endurance performance in endurance-trained runners and cyclists. Running economy is improved by performing combined endurance training with either heavy or explosive strength training. However, heavy strength training is recommended for improving cycling economy. Equivocal findings exist regarding the effects on power output or velocity at the lactate threshold. Concurrent endurance and heavy strength training can increase running speed and power output at VO2max (Vmax and Wmax, respectively) or time to exhaustion at Vmax and Wmax. Combining endurance training with either explosive or heavy strength training can improve running performance, while there is most compelling evidence of an additive effect on cycling performance when heavy strength training is used. It is suggested that the improved endurance performance may relate to delayed activation of less efficient type II fibers, improved neuromuscular efficiency, conversion of fast-twitch type IIX fibers into more fatigue-resistant type IIA fibers, or improved musculo-tendinous stiffness.

Seasonal changes in leg strength and vertical jump ability in internationally competing ski jumpers

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of the seasonal changes in heavy strength training on maximal strength and vertical jump ability in internationally competing ski jumpers. A repeated-measures design was used to follow-up the changes in strength, vertical jump capacity, and neuromuscular efficiency (expressed as the ratio between squat jump height and the relative isometric force) in the ski jumpers. Measurements were performed in November (pre), January (middle of the competition season), and in March (end of the competition season). The weekly number of strength training sessions, absolute, and relative peak isometric squat force was significantly reduced during the competition period (p < 0.05). The body mass was reduced from pre-season to the middle of the competition season and remained at this level at the end of the competition season (p < 0.05). Squat jump height remained unchanged from pre-season until the end of the competition season (p < 0.05). Neuromuscular efficiency increased from pre-season until the end of the competition season (p < 0.05). The present study shows that maximal strength and body weight is reduced from pre-season to the end of the competitive season in internationally competing ski jumpers. The vertical jump ability did not change from pre-season to the end of the competitive season, while the neuromuscular efficiency increased during the competitive season. These findings indicate that coaches and athletes should emphasize adequate nutritional strategies and to apply a larger focus on strength maintenance training during the competitive season to maximize ski jump performance.

Cyclists’ Improvement of Pedaling Efficacy and Performance After Heavy Strength Training

The authors tested whether heavy strength training, including hip-flexion exercise, would reduce the extent of the phase in the crank revolution where negative or retarding crank torque occurs. Negative torque normally occurs in the upstroke phase when the leg is lifted by flexing the hip. Eighteen well-trained cyclists either performed 12 wk of heavy strength training in addition to their usual endurance training (E+S; n = 10) or merely continued their usual endurance training during the intervention period (E; n = 8). The strength training consisted of 4 lower body exercises (3 × 4–10 repetition maximum) performed twice a week. E+S enhanced cycling performance by 7%, which was more than in E (P = .02). Performance was determined as average power output in a 5-min all-out trial performed subsequent to 185 min of submaximal cycling. The performance enhancement, which has been reported previously, was here shown to be accompanied by improved pedaling efficacy during the all-out cycling. Thus, E+S shortened the phase where negative crank torque occurs by ~16°, corresponding to ~14%, which was more than in E (P = .002). In conclusion, adding heavy strength training to usual endurance training in well-trained cyclists improves pedaling efficacy during 5-min all-out cycling performed after 185 min of cycling.

Performance analysis of a world-class sprinter during cycling grand tours

This investigation describes the sprint performances of the highest internationally ranked professional male road sprint cyclist during the 2008-2011 Grand Tours. Sprint stages were classified as won, lost, or dropped from the front bunch before the sprint. Thirty-one stages were video-analyzed for average speed of the last km, sprint duration, position in the bunch, and number of teammates at 60, 30, and 15 s remaining. Race distance, total elevation gain (TEG), and average speed of 45 stages were determined. Head-to-head performances against the 2nd-5th most successful professional sprint cyclists were also reviewed. In the 52 Grand Tour sprint stages the subject started, he won 30 (58%), lost 15 (29%), was dropped in 6 (12%), and had 1 crash. Position in the bunch was closer to the front and the number of team members was significantly higher in won than in lost at 60, 30, and 15 s remaining (P < .05). The sprint duration was not different between won and lost (11.3 ± 1.7 and 10.4 ± 3.2 s). TEG was significantly higher in dropped (1089 ± 465 m) than in won and lost (574 ± 394 and 601 ± 423 m, P < .05). The ability to finish the race with the front bunch was lower (77%) than that of other successful sprinters (89%). However, the subject was highly successful, winning over 60% of contested stages, while his competitors won less than 15%. This investigation explores methodology that can be used to describe important aspects of road sprint cycling and supports the concept that tactical aspects of sprinting can relate to performance outcomes.

Effects of in-season strength maintenance training frequency in professional soccer players

The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of in-season strength maintenance training frequency on strength, jump height, and 40-m sprint performance in professional soccer players. The players performed the same strength training program twice a week during a 10-week preparatory period. In-season, one group of players performed 1 strength maintenance training session per week (group 2 + 1; n = 7), whereas the other group performed 1 session every second week (group 2 + 0.5; n = 7). Only the strength training frequency during the in-season differed between the groups, whereas the exercise, sets and number of repetition maximum as well as soccer sessions were similar in the 2 groups. The preseason strength training resulted in an increased strength, sprint, and jump height (p < 0.05). During the first 12 weeks of the in-season, the initial gain in strength and 40-m sprint performance was maintained in group 2 + 1, whereas both strength and sprint performance were reduced in group 2 + 0.5 (p < 0.05). There was no statistical significant change in jump height in any of the 2 groups during the first 12 weeks of the in-season. In conclusion, performing 1 weekly strength maintenance session during the first 12 weeks of the in-season allowed professional soccer players to maintain the improved strength, sprint, and jump performance achieved during a preceding 10-week preparatory period. On the other hand, performing only 1 strength maintenance session every second week during the in-season resulted in reduced leg strength and 40-m sprint performance. The practical recommendation from the present study is that during a 12-week period, 1 strength maintenance session per week may be sufficient to maintain initial gain in strength and sprint performance achieved during a preceding preparatory period.

Effect of heavy strength training on muscle thickness, strength, jump performance, and endurance performance in well-trained Nordic Combined athletes

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of supplemental heavy strength training on muscle thickness and determinants of performance in well-trained Nordic Combined athletes. Seventeen well-trained Nordic Combined athletes were assigned to either usual training supplemented with heavy strength training (STR; n = 8) or to usual training without heavy strength training (CON; n = 9). The strength training performed by STR consisted of one lower-body exercise and two upper-body exercises [3-5 repetition maximum (RM) sets of 3-8 repetitions], which were performed twice a week for 12 weeks. Architectural changes in m. vastus lateralis, 1RM in squat and seated pull-down, squat jump (SJ) height, maximal oxygen consumption (VO(2max)), work economy during submaximal treadmill skate rollerskiing, and performance in a 7.5-km rollerski time trial were measured before and after the intervention. STR increased 1RM in squat and seated pull-down, muscle thickness, and SJ performance more than CON (p < 0.05). There was no difference between groups in change in work economy. The two groups showed no changes in total body mass, VO(2max), or time-trial performance. In conclusion, 12 weeks of supplemental strength training improved determinants of performance in Nordic Combined by improving the athletes' strength and vertical jump ability without increasing total body mass or compromising the development of VO(2max).

Effects of resistance training on endurance capacity and muscle fiber composition in young top-level cyclists

Equivocal findings exist on the effect of concurrent strength (S) and endurance (E) training on endurance performance and muscle morphology. Further, the influence of concurrent SE training on muscle fiber-type composition, vascularization and endurance capacity remains unknown in top-level endurance athletes. The present study examined the effect of 16 weeks of concurrent SE training on maximal muscle strength (MVC), contractile rate of force development (RFD), muscle fiber morphology and composition, capillarization, aerobic power (VO2max), cycling economy (CE) and long/short-term endurance capacity in young elite competitive cyclists (n=14). MVC and RFD increased 12-20% with SE (P<0.01) but not E. VO2max remained unchanged. CE improved in E to reach values seen in SE. Short-term (5-min) endurance performance increased (3-4%) after SE and E (P<0.05), whereas 45-min endurance capacity increased (8%) with SE only (P<0.05). Type IIA fiber proportions increased and type IIX proportions decreased after SE training (P<0.05) with no change in E. Muscle fiber area and capillarization remained unchanged. In conclusion, concurrent strength/endurance training in young elite competitive cyclists led to an improved 45-min time-trial endurance capacity that was accompanied by an increased proportion of type IIA muscle fibers and gains in MVC and RFD, while capillarization remained unaffected.