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Ziemkiewicz N, Au J, Chauvin HM, Garg K. Electrically stimulated eccentric contraction training enhances muscle mass, function, and size following volumetric muscle loss. J Orthop Res 2023; 41:2588-2598. [PMID: 37132367 DOI: 10.1002/jor.25591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Volumetric muscle loss (VML) overwhelms muscle's innate capacity for repair and can lead to permanent disability. The standard of care for VML injuries includes physical therapy, which can improve muscle function. The objective of this study was to develop and evaluate a rehabilitative therapy using electrically stimulated eccentric contraction training (EST) and determine the structural, biomolecular, and functional response of the VML-injured muscle. This study implemented EST using three different frequencies (50, 100, and 150 Hz) in VML-injured rats starting at 2 weeks postinjury. Four weeks of EST at 150 Hz showed a progressive increase in eccentric torque with an improvement in muscle mass (~39%), myofiber cross-sectional area, and peak isometric torque (~37.5%) relative to the untrained VML-injured sham group. EST at 150 Hz group also increased the number of large type 2B fibers (>5000 µm2 ). Elevated gene expression of markers associated with angiogenesis, myogenesis, neurogenesis, and an anti-inflammatory response was also observed. These results suggest that VML-injured muscles can respond and adapt to eccentric loading. The results of this study may aid in developing physical therapy regimens for traumatized muscles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Ziemkiewicz
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Parks College of Engineering, Aviation and Technology, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Jeffrey Au
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Parks College of Engineering, Aviation and Technology, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Hannah M Chauvin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Parks College of Engineering, Aviation and Technology, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Koyal Garg
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Parks College of Engineering, Aviation and Technology, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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2
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Landen S, Hiam D, Voisin S, Jacques M, Lamon S, Eynon N. Physiological and molecular sex differences in human skeletal muscle in response to exercise training. J Physiol 2023; 601:419-434. [PMID: 34762308 DOI: 10.1113/jp279499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in exercise physiology, such as substrate metabolism and skeletal muscle fatigability, stem from inherent biological factors, including endogenous hormones and genetics. Studies investigating exercise physiology frequently include only males or do not take sex differences into consideration. Although there is still an underrepresentation of female participants in exercise research, existing studies have identified sex differences in physiological and molecular responses to exercise training. The observed sex differences in exercise physiology are underpinned by the sex chromosome complement, sex hormones and, on a molecular level, the epigenome and transcriptome. Future research in the field should aim to include both sexes, control for menstrual cycle factors, conduct large-scale and ethnically diverse studies, conduct meta-analyses to consolidate findings from various studies, leverage unique cohorts (such as post-menopausal, transgender, and those with sex chromosome abnormalities), as well as integrate tissue and cell-specific -omics data. This knowledge is essential for developing deeper insight into sex-specific physiological responses to exercise training, thus directing future exercise physiology studies and practical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanie Landen
- Institute for Health and Sport (iHeS), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Danielle Hiam
- Institute for Health and Sport (iHeS), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia.,Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Sarah Voisin
- Institute for Health and Sport (iHeS), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Macsue Jacques
- Institute for Health and Sport (iHeS), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Séverine Lamon
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Nir Eynon
- Institute for Health and Sport (iHeS), Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
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Transfer Effects of a Multiple-Joint Isokinetic Eccentric Resistance Training Intervention to Nontraining-Specific Traditional Muscle Strength Measures. Sports (Basel) 2023; 11:sports11010009. [PMID: 36668713 PMCID: PMC9865736 DOI: 10.3390/sports11010009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Relatively few investigations have examined the transfer effects of multiple-joint isokinetic eccentric only (MJIE) resistance training on non-specific measures of muscle strength. This study investigated the transfer effects of a short-term MJIE leg press (Eccentron) resistance training program on several non-specific measures of lower-body strength. Fifteen participants performed Eccentron training three times/week for four weeks and were evaluated on training-specific Eccentron peak force (EccPF), nontraining-specific leg press DCER one-repetition maximum (LP 1 RM), and peak torques of the knee extensors during isokinetic eccentric (Ecc30), isokinetic concentric (Con150) and isometric (IsomPT) tasks before and after the training period. The training elicited a large improvement in EccPF (37.9%; Cohen's d effect size [ES] = 0.86). A moderate transfer effect was observed on LP 1 RM gains (19.0%; ES = 0.48) with the magnitude of the strength improvement being about one-half that of EccPF. A small effect was observed on IsomPT and Ecc30 (ES = 0.29 and 0.20, respectively), however, pre-post changes of these measures were not significant. Con150 testing showed no effect (ES = 0.04). These results suggest a short term MJIE training program elicits a large strength improvement in training-specific measures, a moderate strength gain transfer effect to DCER concentric-based strength of a similar movement (i.e., LP 1 RM), and poor transfer to single-joint knee extension measures.
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Slow-Speed Compared With Fast-Speed Eccentric Muscle Actions Are Detrimental to Jump Performance in Elite Soccer Players In-Season. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2022; 17:1425-1431. [PMID: 35894997 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2021-0542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 03/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine the effect of fast- versus slow-speed eccentric-muscle-action resistance training on lower-body strength, vertical jump height, sprint speed, and change-of-direction performance in elite soccer players during a competitive season. METHODS Twenty-two elite soccer players, from a single team, were randomly assigned to groups that undertook either 1- (fast speed) or 4-second (slow speed) eccentric resistance training during the in-season period. A 5-week program was conducted during an elite top-division European League soccer season. Performance measures including predicted 1-repetition-maximum back squat, countermovement jump, 20-m sprint, and change of direction were tested before and after the intervention period. Total match and training running distance and muscle soreness were also recorded during each week of the intervention. RESULTS An analysis of covariance showed significant group effects (P = .01) for countermovement jump with a greater jump height in the 1-second fast-speed group postintervention (95% CI, 1.1-6.9 cm). Despite an overall increase in 1-repetition maximum pretraining to posttraining (95% CI, 10.0-15.3 kg, effect size 0.69), there were no significant differences (P > .05) between groups after the intervention. Similarly, there were no differences between groups for change of direction, 20-m sprint, or muscle soreness. CONCLUSION Faster eccentric muscle actions may be superior for increasing movements in elite soccer players in-season.
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5
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Handford MJ, Bright TE, Mundy P, Lake J, Theis N, Hughes JD. The Need for Eccentric Speed: A Narrative Review of the Effects of Accelerated Eccentric Actions During Resistance-Based Training. Sports Med 2022; 52:2061-2083. [PMID: 35536450 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-022-01686-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Eccentric training as a method to enhance athletic performance is a topic of increasing interest to both practitioners and researchers. However, data regarding the effects of performing the eccentric actions of an exercise at increased velocities are limited. This narrative review aimed to provide greater clarity for eccentric methods and classification with regard to temporal phases of exercises. Between March and April 2021, we used key terms to search the PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Google Scholar databases within the years 1950-2021. Search terms included 'fast eccentric', 'fast velocity eccentric', 'dynamic eccentric', 'accentuated eccentric loading', and 'isokinetic eccentric', analysing both the acute and the chronic effects of accelerated eccentric training in human participants. Review of the 26 studies that met the inclusion criteria identified that completing eccentric tempos of < 2 s increased subsequent concentric one repetition maximum performance, velocity, and power compared with > 4 s tempos. Tempos of > 4 s duration increased time under tension (TUT), whereas reduced tempos allowed for greater volume to be completed. Greater TUT led to larger accumulation of blood lactate, growth hormone, and testosterone when volume was matched to that of the reduced tempos. Overall, evidence supports eccentric actions of < 2 s duration to improve subsequent concentric performance. There is no clear difference between using eccentric tempos of 2-6 s if the aim is to increase hypertrophic response and strength. Future research should analyse the performance of eccentric actions at greater velocities or reduced time durations to determine more factors such as strength response. Tempo studies should aim to complete the same TUT for protocols to determine measures for hypertrophic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Handford
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, UK.
| | - Thomas E Bright
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, UK
- School of Sport, Health and Wellbeing, Plymouth Marjon University, Plymouth, UK
| | - Peter Mundy
- Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Coventry University, Coventry, UK
| | - Jason Lake
- Chichester Institute of Sport, Nursing, and Allied Health, University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Nicola Theis
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, UK
| | - Jonathan D Hughes
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, Gloucester, UK
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6
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Wirth K, Keiner M, Fuhrmann S, Nimmerichter A, Haff GG. Strength Training in Swimming. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19095369. [PMID: 35564764 PMCID: PMC9100337 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19095369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This narrative review deals with the topic of strength training in swimming, which has been a controversial issue for decades. It is not only about the importance for the performance at start, turn and swim speed, but also about the question of how to design a strength training program. Different approaches are discussed in the literature, with two aspects in the foreground. On the one hand is the discussion about the optimal intensity in strength training and, on the other hand, is the question of how specific strength training should be designed. In addition to a summary of the current state of research regarding the importance of strength training for swimming, the article shows which physiological adaptations should be achieved in order to be able to increase performance in the long term. Furthermore, an attempt is made to explain why some training contents seem to be rather unsuitable when it comes to increasing strength as a basis for higher performance in the start, turn and clean swimming. Practical training consequences are then derived from this. Regardless of the athlete's performance development, preventive aspects should also be considered in the discussion. The article provides a critical overview of the abovementioned key issues. The most important points when designing a strength training program for swimming are a sufficiently high-load intensity to increase maximum strength, which in turn is the basis for power, year-round strength training, parallel to swim training and working on the transfer of acquired strength skills in swim training, and not through supposedly specific strength training exercises on land or in the water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Wirth
- Faculty of Training and Sports Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria;
- Correspondence:
| | - Michael Keiner
- Department of Sport Science, University of Health and Sports, 85737 Ismaning, Germany;
| | - Stefan Fuhrmann
- Olympic Training and Testing Centre Hamburg/Schleswig-Holstein, 22049 Hamburg, Germany;
| | - Alfred Nimmerichter
- Faculty of Training and Sports Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, 2700 Wiener Neustadt, Austria;
| | - G. Gregory Haff
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia;
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Kim DY, Oh SL, Lim JY. Applications of Eccentric Exercise to Improve Muscle and Mobility Function in Older Adults. Ann Geriatr Med Res 2022; 26:4-15. [PMID: 35038818 PMCID: PMC8984170 DOI: 10.4235/agmr.21.0138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Muscle aging ultimately leads to the deterioration of human physiological functioning, including declining muscle strength, loss of muscle mass, and decreased quality of life in advanced age. Eccentric exercise is a key intervention that has the potential to ameliorate this problem. Recent studies have focused on evidence-based exercise interventions to prevent declines in muscle strength and physical function in older adults. This paper reviewed relevant literature on the use of eccentric exercise to improve muscle and mobility function in older adults. We explained not only the changes in mobility that occur with aging but also the rationale for and positive effects of eccentric intervention in older adults. We also explored several proposed mechanisms for the intramuscular changes caused by eccentric muscle contraction and considered the safety and side effects accompanying eccentric training. We concluded by suggesting that eccentric exercise is an exercise modality that can potentially improve muscle strength and enhance mobility in older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dae Young Kim
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Aging and Mobility Biophysics Laboratory, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Republic of Korea.,Health and Exercise Science Laboratory, Institute of Sports Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Seung Lyul Oh
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Aging and Mobility Biophysics Laboratory, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Republic of Korea.,Institute on Aging, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Young Lim
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Aging and Mobility Biophysics Laboratory, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, Seongnam, Republic of Korea.,Institute on Aging, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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8
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Association of muscle fiber composition with health and exercise-related traits in athletes and untrained subjects. Biol Sport 2021; 38:659-666. [PMID: 34937976 PMCID: PMC8670815 DOI: 10.5114/biolsport.2021.102923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle is a heterogenous and metabolically active tissue, the composition of which is associated with multiple traits. The aim of the study was to determine whether there are additional health and exercise-related traits associated with muscle fiber composition in athletes and non-athletes. This study recruited 164 Russian participants (51 endurance and 48 power athletes; 65 controls). Vastus lateralis muscle fiber composition was assessed by immunohistochemistry. Slow-twitch muscle fiber percentage (STMF%) was significantly greater in endurance than power athletes and non-athletes, and in non-athlete females than males. STMF% was positively associated with athletes' training frequency, non-athletes' and endurance athletes' age, endurance athletes' competition level and chest depth, and power athletes' training age. STMF% was negatively associated with diastolic blood pressure in power athletes and with systolic blood pressure and reaction time in non-athletes. In all participants, STMF% was positively associated with age, tolerance to long distance exercise, chest depth and fracture incidence, and negatively with systolic blood pressure and resting heart rate. Age, sex and training frequency explained 10.6% and 13.2% of the variance in STMF% in endurance and power athletes, respectively. This is one of the most comprehensive studies involving athletes and untrained subjects and provides novel information concerning associations of increased STMF percentage with lower resting heart rate, better tolerance to long distances, faster reaction time and larger chest depth. On the other hand, the increased percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers was associated with rare fracture incidence.
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9
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van Doorslaer de Ten Ryen S, Warnier G, Gnimassou O, Belhaj MR, Benoit N, Naslain D, Brook MS, Smith K, Wilkinson DJ, Nielens H, Atherton PJ, Francaux M, Deldicque L. Higher strength gain after hypoxic vs normoxic resistance training despite no changes in muscle thickness and fractional protein synthetic rate. FASEB J 2021; 35:e21773. [PMID: 34324735 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202100654rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Acute hypoxia has previously been suggested to potentiate resistance training-induced hypertrophy by activating satellite cell-dependent myogenesis rather than an improvement in protein balance in human. Here, we tested this hypothesis after a 4-week hypoxic vs normoxic resistance training protocol. For that purpose, 19 physically active male subjects were recruited to perform 6 sets of 10 repetitions of a one-leg knee extension exercise at 80% 1-RM 3 times/week for 4 weeks in normoxia (FiO2 : 0.21; n = 9) or in hypoxia (FiO2 : 0.135, n = 10). Blood and skeletal muscle samples were taken before and after the training period. Muscle fractional protein synthetic rate was measured over the whole period by deuterium incorporation into the protein pool and muscle thickness by ultrasound. At the end of the training protocol, the strength gain was higher in the hypoxic vs the normoxic group despite no changes in muscle thickness and in the fractional protein synthetic rate. Only early myogenesis, as assessed by higher MyoD and Myf5 mRNA levels, appeared to be enhanced by hypoxia compared to normoxia. No effects were found on myosin heavy chain expression, markers of oxidative metabolism and lactate transport in the skeletal muscle. Though the present study failed to unravel clearly the mechanisms by which hypoxic resistance training is particularly potent to increase muscle strength, it is important message to keep in mind that this training strategy could be effective for all athletes looking at developing and optimizing their maximal muscle strength.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Mehdi R Belhaj
- Institute of Neuroscience, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Benoit
- Institute of Neuroscience, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Damien Naslain
- Institute of Neuroscience, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Matthew S Brook
- MRC/ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre (BRC), School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Kenneth Smith
- MRC/ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre (BRC), School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Daniel J Wilkinson
- MRC/ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre (BRC), School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Henri Nielens
- Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc, UCLouvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Philip J Atherton
- MRC/ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research and National Institute for Health Research (NIHR), Nottingham Biomedical Research Centre (BRC), School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Marc Francaux
- Institute of Neuroscience, UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
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10
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Maximal muscular power: lessons from sprint cycling. SPORTS MEDICINE-OPEN 2021; 7:48. [PMID: 34268627 PMCID: PMC8282832 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-021-00341-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Maximal muscular power production is of fundamental importance to human functional capacity and feats of performance. Here, we present a synthesis of literature pertaining to physiological systems that limit maximal muscular power during cyclic actions characteristic of locomotor behaviours, and how they adapt to training. Maximal, cyclic muscular power is known to be the main determinant of sprint cycling performance, and therefore we present this synthesis in the context of sprint cycling. Cyclical power is interactively constrained by force-velocity properties (i.e. maximum force and maximum shortening velocity), activation-relaxation kinetics and muscle coordination across the continuum of cycle frequencies, with the relative influence of each factor being frequency dependent. Muscle cross-sectional area and fibre composition appear to be the most prominent properties influencing maximal muscular power and the power-frequency relationship. Due to the role of muscle fibre composition in determining maximum shortening velocity and activation-relaxation kinetics, it remains unclear how improvable these properties are with training. Increases in maximal muscular power may therefore arise primarily from improvements in maximum force production and neuromuscular coordination via appropriate training. Because maximal efforts may need to be sustained for ~15-60 s within sprint cycling competition, the ability to attenuate fatigue-related power loss is also critical to performance. Within this context, the fatigued state is characterised by impairments in force-velocity properties and activation-relaxation kinetics. A suppression and leftward shift of the power-frequency relationship is subsequently observed. It is not clear if rates of power loss can be improved with training, even in the presence adaptations associated with fatigue-resistance. Increasing maximum power may be most efficacious for improving sustained power during brief maximal efforts, although the inclusion of sprint interval training likely remains beneficial. Therefore, evidence from sprint cycling indicates that brief maximal muscular power production under cyclical conditions can be readily improved via appropriate training, with direct implications for sprint cycling as well as other athletic and health-related pursuits.
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11
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Petersen AC, Fyfe JJ. Post-exercise Cold Water Immersion Effects on Physiological Adaptations to Resistance Training and the Underlying Mechanisms in Skeletal Muscle: A Narrative Review. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:660291. [PMID: 33898988 PMCID: PMC8060572 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.660291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Post-exercise cold-water immersion (CWI) is a popular recovery modality aimed at minimizing fatigue and hastening recovery following exercise. In this regard, CWI has been shown to be beneficial for accelerating post-exercise recovery of various parameters including muscle strength, muscle soreness, inflammation, muscle damage, and perceptions of fatigue. Improved recovery following an exercise session facilitated by CWI is thought to enhance the quality and training load of subsequent training sessions, thereby providing a greater training stimulus for long-term physiological adaptations. However, studies investigating the long-term effects of repeated post-exercise CWI instead suggest CWI may attenuate physiological adaptations to exercise training in a mode-specific manner. Specifically, there is evidence post-exercise CWI can attenuate improvements in physiological adaptations to resistance training, including aspects of maximal strength, power, and skeletal muscle hypertrophy, without negatively influencing endurance training adaptations. Several studies have investigated the effects of CWI on the molecular responses to resistance exercise in an attempt to identify the mechanisms by which CWI attenuates physiological adaptations to resistance training. Although evidence is limited, it appears that CWI attenuates the activation of anabolic signaling pathways and the increase in muscle protein synthesis following acute and chronic resistance exercise, which may mediate the negative effects of CWI on long-term resistance training adaptations. There are, however, a number of methodological factors that must be considered when interpreting evidence for the effects of post-exercise CWI on physiological adaptations to resistance training and the potential underlying mechanisms. This review outlines and critiques the available evidence on the effects of CWI on long-term resistance training adaptations and the underlying molecular mechanisms in skeletal muscle, and suggests potential directions for future research to further elucidate the effects of CWI on resistance training adaptations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron C Petersen
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Jackson J Fyfe
- Deakin University, Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Science, Geelong, VIC, Australia
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12
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McNeill C, Beaven CM, McMaster DT, Gill N. Survey of Eccentric-Based Strength and Conditioning Practices in Sport. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 34:2769-2775. [PMID: 32796422 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
McNeill, C, Beaven, CM, McMaster, DT, and Gill, N. Survey of eccentric-based strength and conditioning practices in sport. J Strength Cond Res 34(10): 2769-2775, 2020-Eccentric-based training (ECC) has been shown to be an effective training strategy in athletes; however, despite the theoretical benefits, the uptake by practitioners is currently unknown. This study investigated the current ECC strength and conditioning practices that are implemented in the training of athletes. Two hundred twenty-four practitioners were electronically surveyed anonymously with 98 responses available for analysis. Nearly all respondents (96%) had prescribed ECC in the last 24 months. Sport performance (64%), injury prevention (24%), and rehabilitation (8%) were the top-ranked reasons to include ECC. Respondents programmed ECC for strength (35%), hypertrophy (19%), and power (18%). A majority of respondents did not monitor ECC load (58%) or use eccentric-specific testing (75%). Seventeen respondents commented that high-intensity training such as sprinting and change of direction, were avoided during ECC blocks. Eccentric-based training intensity was prescribed as percentage of 1 repetition maximum (34%), rate of perceived exertion (20%), or velocity (16%). Respondents indicated muscle soreness and concurrent high-intensity activities were concerns during ECC but reported not using eccentric monitoring or testing. The efficacy of ECC is well supported, yet there seems to be a lack of defined protocol for integrating ECC research into practice. A greater understanding of eccentric contribution to sport performance and injury prevention may help define testing and monitoring procedures for the prescription of ECC interventions. Practitioners should consider factors such as periodization, soreness, and monitoring when designing ECC programs. The findings of this survey indicate that no uniform strategies exist for the prescription of ECC among experienced practitioners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor McNeill
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Center for High Performance, The University of Waikato, Tauranga, NZ; and
| | - Christopher Martyn Beaven
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Center for High Performance, The University of Waikato, Tauranga, NZ; and
| | - Daniel T McMaster
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Center for High Performance, The University of Waikato, Tauranga, NZ; and.,New Zealand Rugby Union, Wellington, NZ
| | - Nicholas Gill
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Center for High Performance, The University of Waikato, Tauranga, NZ; and.,New Zealand Rugby Union, Wellington, NZ
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13
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Emphasizing Task-Specific Hypertrophy to Enhance Sequential Strength and Power Performance. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2020; 5:jfmk5040076. [PMID: 33467291 PMCID: PMC7739346 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk5040076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
While strength is indeed a skill, most discussions have primarily considered structural adaptations rather than ultrastructural augmentation to improve performance. Altering the structural component of the muscle is often the aim of hypertrophic training, yet not all hypertrophy is equal; such alterations are dependent upon how the muscle adapts to the training stimuli and overall training stress. When comparing bodybuilders to strength and power athletes such as powerlifters, weightlifters, and throwers, while muscle size may be similar, the ability to produce force and power is often inequivalent. Thus, performance differences go beyond structural changes and may be due to the muscle's ultrastructural constituents and training induced adaptations. Relative to potentiating strength and power performances, eliciting specific ultrastructural changes should be a variable of interest during hypertrophic training phases. By focusing on task-specific hypertrophy, it may be possible to achieve an optimal amount of hypertrophy while deemphasizing metabolic and aerobic components that are often associated with high-volume training. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to briefly address different types of hypertrophy and provide directions for practitioners who are aiming to achieve optimal rather than maximal hypertrophy, as it relates to altering ultrastructural muscular components, to potentiate strength and power performance.
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14
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Keiner M, Kadlubowski B, Sander A, Hartmann H, Wirth K. Effects of 10 months of Speed, Functional, and Traditional Strength Training on Strength, Linear Sprint, Change of Direction, and Jump Performance in Trained Adolescent Soccer Players. J Strength Cond Res 2020; 36:2236-2246. [PMID: 32868678 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Keiner, M, Kadlubowski, B, Sander, A, Hartmann, H, and Wirth, K. Effects of 10 months of speed, functional, and traditional strength training on strength, linear sprint, change of direction, and jump performance in trained adolescent soccer players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-The current study aimed to compare the effects of plyometric and sprint vs. functional vs. strength training on linear sprint (LS 20 m), change of direction (COD; i.e., turning right and left), jump (squat jump [SJ]), and maximum strength (1 repetition maximum [1RM] for a squat) performance in elite adolescent soccer players. A longitudinal design was chosen, and 48 elite male youth were recruited. The athletes were divided into 4 groups (a traditional strength training group [STG], a plyometric and sprint training group [PSTG], a functional training group [FTG], and a control group [CG]). The intervention groups trained for 10 months with additional sessions added to their regular soccer training (4-5 sessions per week); the additional training (2 sessions a week [each about 60 minutes]) consisted of plyometric and sprint training, functional training, and traditional strength training for the PSTG, FTG, and STG, respectively. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance with repeated measurements. The effect sizes were calculated using Hedges g. This study showed significantly superior performance increases with traditional strength training compared with sprint and jump training and functional training for maximum strength (compared with all other groups g = 0.98-1.61), SJ (g = 0.52-0.87 compared with FGT and CG; not significantly different from PSTG), COD (direction of rotation right: compared with all other groups g = 1.58-2.12; direction of rotation left: no significant differences), and 20-m LS (compared with all other groups g = 0.86-1.39) performance over time. Traditional strength training is recommended to increase strength and speed-strength variables and should therefore be given high priority in athletic training programs for elite youth soccer players.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Keiner
- German University of Health and Sport, Ismaning, Germany
| | | | - Andre Sander
- German Luge and Bobsled Federation, Berchtesgaden, Germany
| | - Hagen Hartmann
- German University of Health and Sport, Ismaning, Germany
| | - Klaus Wirth
- University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Wiener Neustadt, Austria
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15
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Fernandez Ortega JA, los Reyes YGD, Garavito Peña FR. Effects of strength training based on velocity versus traditional training on muscle mass, neuromuscular activation, and indicators of maximal power and strength in girls soccer players. APUNTS SPORTS MEDICINE 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apunsm.2020.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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16
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Oranchuk DJ, Storey AG, Nelson AR, Cronin JB. Scientific Basis for Eccentric Quasi-Isometric Resistance Training: A Narrative Review. J Strength Cond Res 2020; 33:2846-2859. [PMID: 31361732 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Oranchuk, DJ, Storey, AG, Nelson, AR, and Cronin, JB. The scientific basis for eccentric quasi-isometric resistance training: A narrative review. J Strength Cond Res 33(10): 2846-2859, 2019-Eccentric quasi-isometric (EQI) resistance training involves holding a submaximal, yielding isometric contraction until fatigue causes muscle lengthening and then maximally resisting through a range of motion. Practitioners contend that EQI contractions are a powerful tool for the development of several physical qualities important to health and sports performance. In addition, several sports involve regular quasi-isometric contractions for optimal performance. Therefore, the primary objective of this review was to synthesize and critically analyze relevant biological, physiological, and biomechanical research and develop a rationale for the value of EQI training. In addition, this review offers potential practical applications and highlights future areas of research. Although there is a paucity of research investigating EQIs, the literature on responses to traditional contraction types is vast. Based on the relevant literature, EQIs may provide a practical means of increasing total volume, metabolite build-up, and hormonal signaling factors while safely enduring large quantities of mechanical tension with low levels of peak torque. Conversely, EQI contractions likely hold little neuromuscular specificity to high velocity or power movements. Therefore, EQI training seems to be effective for improving musculotendinous morphological and performance variables with low injury risk. Although speculative due to the limited specific literature, available evidence suggests a case for future experimentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dustin J Oranchuk
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Adam G Storey
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - André R Nelson
- Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - John B Cronin
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,School of Health and Medical Science, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
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17
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McNeill C, Beaven CM, McMaster DT, Gill N. Eccentric Training Interventions and Team Sport Athletes. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2019; 4:jfmk4040067. [PMID: 33467382 PMCID: PMC7739426 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk4040067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2019] [Revised: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Eccentric resistance training has been shown to improve performance outcomes in a range of populations, making it a popular choice for practitioners. Evidence suggests that neuromuscular adaptations resulting from eccentric overload (EO) and accentuated eccentric loading (AEL) methods could benefit athletic populations competing in team sports. The purpose of this review was to determine the effects of eccentric resistance training on performance qualities in trained male team sport athletes. A systematic review was conducted using electronic databases PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science in May 2019. The literature search resulted in 1402 initial articles, with 14 included in the final analysis. Variables related to strength, speed, power and change of direction ability were extracted and effect sizes were calculated with a correction for small sample size. Trivial, moderate and large effect sizes were reported for strength (-0.17 to 1.67), speed (-0.08 to 1.06), power (0.27 to 1.63) and change of direction (0.48 to 1.46) outcomes. Eccentric resistance training appears to be an effective stimulus for developing neuromuscular qualities in trained male team sport athletes. However, the range of effect sizes, testing protocols and training interventions suggest that more research is needed to better implement this type of training in athletic populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor McNeill
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Centre, The University of Waikato, 3116 Tauranga, New Zealand (D.T.M.); (N.G.)
- Correspondence:
| | - C. Martyn Beaven
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Centre, The University of Waikato, 3116 Tauranga, New Zealand (D.T.M.); (N.G.)
| | - Daniel T. McMaster
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Centre, The University of Waikato, 3116 Tauranga, New Zealand (D.T.M.); (N.G.)
- New Zealand Rugby Union, 6011 Wellington, New Zealand
| | - Nicholas Gill
- Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, Adams Centre, The University of Waikato, 3116 Tauranga, New Zealand (D.T.M.); (N.G.)
- New Zealand Rugby Union, 6011 Wellington, New Zealand
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18
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Marzilger R, Bohm S, Mersmann F, Arampatzis A. Effects of Lengthening Velocity During Eccentric Training on Vastus Lateralis Muscle Hypertrophy. Front Physiol 2019; 10:957. [PMID: 31417420 PMCID: PMC6684750 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Eccentric loading is an effective stimulus for muscle hypertrophy and strength gains, however, the effect of lengthening velocity is under debate. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the influence of muscle lengthening velocity during eccentric training on muscle hypertrophy and strength gains at a given overall loading volume. Forty-seven participants were randomly assigned to a control (n = 14, age: 26.9 ± 4.1 years) and an experimental group (n = 33, age: 27.1 ± 4.4 years). Each leg of the participants in the experimental group was randomly assigned to one of the four eccentric training protocols with different angular velocities (i.e., 45, 120, 210, and 300°/s). Both the magnitude of loading (100% of the isometric maximum) and overall time under tension was matched between the protocols. The training was performed for 33 sessions, 3 times per week with 5 training sets per session. Before and after the intervention, the maximum isometric knee extension moments were measured in all groups using dynamometry, vastus lateralis (VL) muscle anatomical cross-sectional area, and VL muscle volume were measured in the experimental group using magnetic resonance imaging. Data was analyzed in a mixed-design analysis of variance. After the training intervention, the maximum knee joint moments increased in the experimental group (14.2%, p < 0.05) but not the control group. VL anatomical cross-sectional area and VL muscle volume increased significantly (p < 0.05) in the experimental group (5.1 and 5.7%, respectively), but we did not find any significant differences between the four training protocols in all investigated parameters (p > 0.05). The present study provides evidence that muscle hypertrophy and strength gains after eccentric exercise is velocity-independent when load magnitude and overall time under tension are matched between conditions. This is likely due to the similar mechanical demand for the muscle induced by the loading conditions of all four training protocols. The better control of motion and the potentially decreased joint loading compared to high lengthening velocity contractions support the application of slow eccentric exercises in special populations like elderly and people with neurological and musculoskeletal diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Marzilger
- Department of Training and Movement Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sebastian Bohm
- Department of Training and Movement Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin School of Movement Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Falk Mersmann
- Department of Training and Movement Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin School of Movement Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Adamantios Arampatzis
- Department of Training and Movement Sciences, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin School of Movement Science, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Suchomel TJ, Wagle JP, Douglas J, Taber CB, Harden M, Haff GG, Stone MH. Implementing Eccentric Resistance Training-Part 1: A Brief Review of Existing Methods. J Funct Morphol Kinesiol 2019; 4:jfmk4020038. [PMID: 33467353 PMCID: PMC7739257 DOI: 10.3390/jfmk4020038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this review was to provide a physiological rationale for the use of eccentric resistance training and to provide an overview of the most commonly prescribed eccentric training methods. Based on the existing literature, there is a strong physiological rationale for the incorporation of eccentric training into a training program for an individual seeking to maximize muscle size, strength, and power. Specific adaptations may include an increase in muscle cross-sectional area, force output, and fiber shortening velocities, all of which have the potential to benefit power production characteristics. Tempo eccentric training, flywheel inertial training, accentuated eccentric loading, and plyometric training are commonly implemented in applied contexts. These methods tend to involve different force absorption characteristics and thus, overload the muscle or musculotendinous unit in different ways during lengthening actions. For this reason, they may produce different magnitudes of improvement in hypertrophy, strength, and power. The constraints to which they are implemented can have a marked effect on the characteristics of force absorption and therefore, could affect the nature of the adaptive response. However, the versatility of the constraints when prescribing these methods mean that they can be effectively implemented to induce these adaptations within a variety of populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J. Suchomel
- Department of Human Movement Sciences, Carroll University, Waukesha, WI 53186, USA
- Directorate of Sport, Exercise, and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester M6 6PU, UK
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-262-524-7441
| | | | - Jamie Douglas
- High Performance Sport New Zealand, Mairangi Bay, Auckland 0632, New Zealand
| | - Christopher B. Taber
- Department of Physical Therapy and Human Movement Science, Sacred Heart University, Fairfield, CT 06825, USA
| | - Mellissa Harden
- Directorate of Sport, Exercise, and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester M6 6PU, UK
- Department of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne M66PU, UK
| | - G. Gregory Haff
- Directorate of Sport, Exercise, and Physiotherapy, University of Salford, Salford, Greater Manchester M6 6PU, UK
- Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup WA 6027, Australia
| | - Michael H. Stone
- Center of Excellence for Sport Science and Coach Education, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN 37614, USA
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20
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Jiménez-Reyes P, Samozino P, Morin JB. Optimized training for jumping performance using the force-velocity imbalance: Individual adaptation kinetics. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0216681. [PMID: 31091259 PMCID: PMC6519828 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0216681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS We analysed the changes in force-velocity-power variables and jump performance in response to an individualized training program based on the force-velocity imbalance (FVimb). In particular, we investigated (i) the individual adaptation kinetics to reach the optimal profile and (ii) de-training kinetics over the three weeks following the end of the training program. METHODS Sixty subjects were assigned to four sub-groups according to their initial FVimb: high or low force-deficit (FD) and high or low velocity-deficit (VD). The duration of training intervention was set so that each individual reached their "Optimal force-velocity (F-v) profile". Mechanical and performance variables were measured every 3 weeks during the program, and every week after the end of the individualized program. RESULTS All subjects in the FD sub-groups showed extremely large increases in maximal theoretical force output (+30±16.6% Mean±SD; ES = 2.23±0.28), FVimb reduction (-74.3±54.7%; ES = 2.17±0.27) and large increases in jump height (+12.4±7.6%; ES = 1.45±0.23). For the VD sub-groups, we observed moderate to extremely large increases in maximal theoretical velocity (+15.8±5.1%; ES = 2.72±0.29), FVimb reduction (-19.2±6.9%; ES = 2.36±0.35) and increases in jump height (+10.1±2.7%; ES = 0.93±0.09). The number of weeks needed to reach the optimal F-v profile (12.6 ± 4.6) was correlated to the magnitude of initial FVimb (r = 0.82, p<0.01) for all participants regardless of their initial subgroup. No significant change in mechanical variables or jump performance was observed over the 3-week de-training period. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, these results provide useful insights into a more specific, individualized (i.e. based on the type and magnitude of FVimb) and accurate training prescription for jumping performance. Considering both training content and training duration together with FVimb may enable more individualized, specific and effective training monitoring and periodization.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pierre Samozino
- Univ Savoie Mont Blanc, Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Biologie de la Motricité, Chambéry, France
| | - Jean-Benoît Morin
- Université Côte d’Azur, LAMHESS, Nice, France
- SPRINZ, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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21
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Ünlü G, Çevikol C, Melekoğlu T. Comparison of the Effects of Eccentric, Concentric, and Eccentric-Concentric Isotonic Resistance Training at Two Velocities on Strength and Muscle Hypertrophy. J Strength Cond Res 2019; 34:337-344. [PMID: 30946270 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Ünlü, G, Çevikol, C, and Melekoğlu, T. Comparison of the effects of eccentric, concentric, and eccentric-concentric isotonic resistance training at two velocities on strength and muscle hypertrophy. J Strength Cond Res 34(2): 337-344, 2020-The aim of this study was to compare the effects of concentric, eccentric, and eccentric-concentric isotonic resistance training at both fast and slow velocities to determine whether contraction modality affects muscle strength and hypertrophy. Forty-one young, healthy males (mean age 21.1 ± 1.8 years; height 178.9 ± 6.1 cm; body mass 70.5 ± 9.8 kg; and body mass index 22.0 ± 2.6 kg·m) were randomly assigned for 12 weeks to 1 of 5 resistance training groups to perform leg extension exercises 3 days a week (fast-eccentric; fast-concentric [FC]; slow-eccentric [SE]; slow-concentric; and concentric-eccentric [CE], 30°·s for slow and 180°·s for fast contractions), or to a nontraining control group (CG). Isotonic strength (1 repetition maximum [1RM]), isokinetic strength (peak torque), and quadriceps femoris muscle volume were measured before and after the 12 weeks of training program. In the early phase of the training period (first 3 weeks), the 1RM values of SE, FC, and CE increased remarkably (19.70, 13.73, and 19.35%, respectively; p < 0.05). Significant increases compared with the CG were found for muscle isotonic strength (∼25-41%, p < 0.001) and isokinetic peak torque at 60°·s (∼13-32%, p < 0.05) in all training groups after the 12 weeks of the training period. No statistically significant interactions between the group and time were found on isokinetic peak torques at 180°·s and muscle volume. Our results, therefore, suggest that all the training modalities in our study have the potential to induce isotonic strength gain in knee extensors, and there is insufficient evidence for the superiority of any specific mode of muscle contraction or velocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gürcan Ünlü
- Department of Physical Education and Sports, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.,Faculty of Sports Sciences, Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Çanakkale, Turkey
| | - Can Çevikol
- Faculty of Medicine, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey; and
| | - Tuba Melekoğlu
- Faculty of Sports Sciences, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey
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22
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Rate of Force Development and Muscle Architecture after Fast and Slow Velocity Eccentric Training. Sports (Basel) 2019; 7:sports7020041. [PMID: 30769873 PMCID: PMC6410101 DOI: 10.3390/sports7020041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the study was to investigate the rate of force development (RFD) and muscle architecture early adaptations in response to training with fast- or slow-velocity eccentric squats. Eighteen young novice participants followed six weeks (two sessions/week) of either fast-velocity (Fast) or slow-velocity (Slow) squat eccentric-only training. Fast eccentric training consisted of nine sets of nine eccentric-only repetitions at 70% of 1-RM with <1 s duration for each repetition. Slow eccentric training consisted of five sets of six eccentric-only repetitions at 90% of 1-RM with ~4 sec duration for each repetition. Before and after training, squat 1-RM, countermovement jump (CMJ), isometric leg press RFD, and vastus lateralis muscle architecture were evaluated. Squat 1-RM increased by 14.5 ± 7.0% (Fast, p < 0.01) and by 5.4 ± 5.1% (Slow, p < 0.05). RFD and fascicle length increased significantly in the Fast group by 10–19% and 10.0 ± 6.2%, p < 0.01, respectively. Muscle thickness increased only in the Slow group (6.0 ± 6.8%, p < 0.05). Significant correlations were found between the training induced changes in fascicle length and RFD. These results suggest that fast eccentric resistance training may be more appropriate for increases in rapid force production compared to slow eccentric resistance training, and this may be partly due to increases in muscle fascicle length induced by fast eccentric training.
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23
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Douglas J, Pearson S, Ross A, McGuigan M. Effects of Accentuated Eccentric Loading on Muscle Properties, Strength, Power, and Speed in Resistance-Trained Rugby Players. J Strength Cond Res 2019; 32:2750-2761. [PMID: 30113915 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Douglas, J, Pearson, S, Ross, A, and McGuigan, M. Effects of accentuated eccentric loading on muscle properties, strength, power, and speed in resistance-trained rugby players. J Strength Cond Res 32(10): 2750-2761, 2018-The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of slow and fast tempo resistance training incorporating accentuated eccentric loading (AEL) compared with traditional resistance training (TRT) in trained rugby players. Fourteen subjects (19.4 ± 0.8 years, 1.82 ± 0.05 m, 97.0 ± 11.6 kg, and relative back squat 1 repetition maximum [1RM]: 1.71 ± 0.24 kg·BM) completed either AEL (n = 7) or TRT (n = 7) strength and power protocols. Two 4-week phases of training were completed. The first phase emphasized a slow eccentric tempo, and the second phase emphasized a fast eccentric tempo. Back squat 1RM, inertial load peak power, drop jump reactive strength index (RSI), 40-m speed, maximum sprinting velocity (Vmax), and vastus lateralis (VL) muscle architectural variables were determined at baseline and after each phase of training. Slow AEL elicited superior improvements in back squat 1RM (+0.12 kg·BM; effect size [ES]: 0.48; and 90% confidence interval [CI]: 0.14, 0.82), 40-m time (-0.07 seconds; ES: 0.28; and CI: 0.01-0.55), and Vmax (+0.20 m·s; ES: 0.52; and CI: 0.18-0.86) vs. slow TRT. Fast AEL elicited a small increase in RSI but impaired speed. There was a likely greater increase in peak power with fast TRT (+0.72 W·kg; ES: 0.40; and CI: 0.00-0.79) vs. fast AEL alongside a small increase in VL pennation angle. The short-term incorporation of slow AEL was superior to TRT in improving strength and maximum velocity sprinting speed in rugby players undertaking a concurrent preparatory program. The second 4-week phase of fast AEL may have exceeded recovery capabilities compared with fast TRT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Douglas
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,High Performance Sport New Zealand (HPSNZ), Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Simon Pearson
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,Queensland Academy of Sport, Nathan, Australia
| | - Angus Ross
- High Performance Sport New Zealand (HPSNZ), Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Mike McGuigan
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia
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24
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Julian V, Thivel D, Costes F, Touron J, Boirie Y, Pereira B, Perrault H, Duclos M, Richard R. Eccentric Training Improves Body Composition by Inducing Mechanical and Metabolic Adaptations: A Promising Approach for Overweight and Obese Individuals. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1013. [PMID: 30131705 PMCID: PMC6090036 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle generates force by either shortening (concentrically) or lengthening (eccentrically). Eccentric (ECC) exercise is characterized by a lower metabolic demand and requires less muscle activity than concentric (CON) exercise at the same level of exerted force. However, the specific effect of ECC training vs. CON training on lean and fat mass remains underexplored. The first aim of this paper was to review the available evidence regarding the effects of ECC training on whole body and segmental lean and fat mass and, when possible, compare these with the effects of CON training. The second aim was to provide some insights into the main mechanical, physiological, and metabolic adaptations of ECC training that contribute to its effects on body composition. The third aim was to determine the beneficial effects of ECC exercise on health-related parameters in overweight and obese patients. ECC training is an effective modality to improve lean mass, but when matched for load or work, the difference between ECC and CON trainings seems unclear. A few studies reported that ECC training is also efficient at reducing fat mass. By increasing post-exercise resting energy expenditure, modifying metabolic substrate, and improving both blood lipid profile and insulin resistance, ECC training is a potential exercise modality for individuals with chronic conditions such as those who are overweight and obese. Further investigations using standardized experimental conditions, examining not only segmental but also whole body composition, are required to compare ECC and CON trainings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Julian
- Service de Médecine du Sport et Explorations Fonctionnelles, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, INRA, CRNH, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - David Thivel
- Laboratoire AME2P, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Frédéric Costes
- Service de Médecine du Sport et Explorations Fonctionnelles, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, INRA, CRNH, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Julianne Touron
- INRA, CRNH, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Yves Boirie
- Service de Nutrition Clinique, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, INRA, CRNH, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Bruno Pereira
- Service de Biostatistique, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Hélène Perrault
- Faculté des Sciences de la Santé, Université d'Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Martine Duclos
- Service de Médecine du Sport et Explorations Fonctionnelles, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, INRA, CRNH, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Ruddy Richard
- Service de Médecine du Sport et Explorations Fonctionnelles, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, INRA, CRNH, Université Clermont Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
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25
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Douglas J, Pearson S, Ross A, McGuigan M. Chronic Adaptations to Eccentric Training: A Systematic Review. Sports Med 2018; 47:917-941. [PMID: 27647157 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-016-0628-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Resistance training is an integral component of physical preparation for athletes. A growing body of evidence indicates that eccentric strength training methods induce novel stimuli for neuromuscular adaptations. OBJECTIVE The purpose of this systematic review was to determine the effects of eccentric training in comparison to concentric-only or traditional (i.e. constrained by concentric strength) resistance training. METHODS Searches were performed using the electronic databases MEDLINE via EBSCO, PubMed and SPORTDiscus via EBSCO. Full journal articles investigating the long-term (≥4 weeks) effects of eccentric training in healthy (absence of injury or illness during the 4 weeks preceding the training intervention), adult (17-35 years), human participants were selected for the systematic review. A total of 40 studies conformed to these criteria. RESULTS Eccentric training elicits greater improvements in muscle strength, although in a largely mode-specific manner. Superior enhancements in power and stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) function have also been reported. Eccentric training is at least as effective as other modalities in increasing muscle cross-sectional area (CSA), while the pattern of hypertrophy appears nuanced and increased CSA may occur longitudinally within muscle (i.e. the addition of sarcomeres in series). There appears to be a preferential increase in the size of type II muscle fibres and the potential to exert a unique effect upon fibre type transitions. Qualitative and quantitative changes in tendon tissue that may be related to the magnitude of strain imposed have also been reported with eccentric training. CONCLUSIONS Eccentric training is a potent stimulus for enhancements in muscle mechanical function, and muscle-tendon unit (MTU) morphological and architectural adaptations. The inclusion of eccentric loads not constrained by concentric strength appears to be superior to traditional resistance training in improving variables associated with strength, power and speed performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie Douglas
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand. .,High Performance Sport New Zealand (HPSNZ), AUT Millennium, 17 Antares Place, Mairangi Bay, Auckland, 0632, New Zealand.
| | - Simon Pearson
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,Queensland Academy of Sport, Nathan, QLD, Australia
| | - Angus Ross
- High Performance Sport New Zealand (HPSNZ), AUT Millennium, 17 Antares Place, Mairangi Bay, Auckland, 0632, New Zealand
| | - Mike McGuigan
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand.,School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Perth, WA, Australia
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Higher torque and muscle fibre conduction velocity of the Biceps Brachii in karate practitioners during isokinetic contractions. J Electromyogr Kinesiol 2018; 40:81-87. [PMID: 29698877 DOI: 10.1016/j.jelekin.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Although upper limb techniques are largely utilized during karate combat competitions scarce information regarding their NM control is available. This study aims at investigating the effect of karate practice on the NM control of Biceps and Triceps Brachii during isokinetic contractions to enhance current knowledge on neuromuscular control adaptations and training methodologies in combat sports. METHODS Torque and surface electromyograms (sEMG) of Biceps Brachii Caput Longum (BB) and Triceps Brachii Lateral Head (TB) were recorded in eight karate practitioners (KA) and eight age-matched sedentary individuals (CO) during isokinetic elbow flexion-extensions (0-240°/s-1). BB and TB sEMG amplitude (Root Mean Square - RMS) and frequency (Median Frequency - MDF) were computed during agonist and antagonist activity. Moreover, muscle fibre conduction velocity (MFCV) of the BB was computed. RESULTS During the isokinetic contractions, KA group demonstrated higher peak torque and higher MFCV in the BB with respect to CO. KA and CO presented comparable activation of agonist and antagonist muscles and comparable frequency content in both BB and TB. CONCLUSIONS The greater torque observed in KA should be interpreted in the light of a different motor unit recruitment strategy as suggested by the higher MFCV. Karate and combat sport practitioners should consider including in their training programmes methodologies emphasising neural rather than morphological adaptations.
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D'Souza RF, Zeng N, Markworth JF, Figueiredo VC, Roberts LA, Raastad T, Coombes JS, Peake JM, Cameron-Smith D, Mitchell CJ. Divergent effects of cold water immersion versus active recovery on skeletal muscle fiber type and angiogenesis in young men. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2018; 314:R824-R833. [PMID: 29466686 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00421.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Resistance training (RT) increases muscle fiber size and induces angiogenesis to maintain capillary density. Cold water immersion (CWI), a common postexercise recovery modality, may improve acute recovery, but it attenuates muscle hypertrophy compared with active recovery (ACT). It is unknown if CWI following RT alters muscle fiber type expression or angiogenesis. Twenty-one men strength trained for 12 wk, with either 10 min of CWI ( n = 11) or ACT ( n = 10) performed following each session. Vastus lateralis biopsies were collected at rest before and after training. Type IIx myofiber percent decreased ( P = 0.013) and type IIa myofiber percent increased with training ( P = 0.012), with no difference between groups. The number of capillaries per fiber increased from pretraining in the CWI group ( P = 0.004) but not the ACT group ( P = 0.955). Expression of myosin heavy chain genes ( MYH1 and MYH2), encoding type IIx and IIa fibers, respectively, decreased in the ACT group, whereas MYH7 (encoding type I fibers) increased in the ACT group versus CWI ( P = 0.004). Myosin heavy chain IIa protein increased with training ( P = 0.012) with no difference between groups. The proangiogenic vascular endothelial growth factor protein decreased posttraining in the ACT group versus CWI ( P < 0.001), whereas antiangiogenic Sprouty-related, EVH1 domain-containing protein 1 protein increased with training in both groups ( P = 0.015). Expression of microRNAs that regulate muscle fiber type (miR-208b and -499a) and angiogenesis (miR-15a, -16, and -126) increased only in the ACT group ( P < 0.05). CWI recovery after each training session altered the angiogenic and fiber type-specific response to RT through regulation at the levels of microRNA, gene, and protein expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Randall F D'Souza
- Liggins Institute, The University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
| | - Nina Zeng
- Liggins Institute, The University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
| | - James F Markworth
- Liggins Institute, The University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
| | - Vandre C Figueiredo
- Liggins Institute, The University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand.,Center for Muscle Biology, University of Kentucky , Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Llion A Roberts
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland , Brisbane , Australia.,Sports Performance Innovation and Knowledge Excellence, Queensland Academy of Sport , Brisbane , Australia.,School of Allied Health Sciences & Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University , Gold Coast, Queensland , Australia
| | - Truls Raastad
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences , Oslo , Norway
| | - Jeff S Coombes
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland , Brisbane , Australia
| | - Jonathan M Peake
- Sports Performance Innovation and Knowledge Excellence, Queensland Academy of Sport , Brisbane , Australia.,School of Biomedical Sciences and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology , Brisbane Australia
| | - David Cameron-Smith
- Liggins Institute, The University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand.,Food & Bio-Based Products Group, AgResearch, Palmerston North , New Zealand.,Riddet Institute , Palmerston North , New Zealand
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Hackett DA, Davies TB, Orr R, Kuang K, Halaki M. Effect of movement velocity during resistance training on muscle-specific hypertrophy: A systematic review. Eur J Sport Sci 2018; 18:473-482. [PMID: 29431597 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1434563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Currently, it is unclear whether manipulation of movement velocity during resistance exercise has an effect on hypertrophy of specific muscles. The purpose of this systematic review of literature was to investigate the effect of movement velocity during resistance training on muscle hypertrophy. Five electronic databases were searched using terms related to movement velocity and resistance training. Inclusion criteria were randomised and non-randomised comparative studies; published in English; included healthy adults; used dynamic resistance exercise interventions directly comparing fast training to slower movement velocity training; matched in prescribed intensity and volume; duration ≥4 weeks; and measured muscle hypertrophy. A total of six studies were included involving 119 untrained participants. Hypertrophy of the quadriceps was examined in five studies and of the biceps brachii in two studies. Three studies found significantly greater increases in hypertrophy of the quadriceps for moderate-slow compared to fast training. For the remaining studies examining the quadriceps, significant within-group increase in hypertrophy was found for only moderate-slow training in one study and for only fast training in the other study. The two studies that examined hypertrophy of the biceps brachii found greater increases for fast compared to moderate-slow training. Caution is required when interpreting the findings from this review due to the low number of studies, hence insufficient data. Future longitudinal randomised controlled studies in cohorts of healthy adults are required to confirm and extend our findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel A Hackett
- a Discipline of Exercise and Sports Science, Faculty of Health Sciences , The University of Sydney , Sydney , NSW , Australia
| | - Timothy B Davies
- a Discipline of Exercise and Sports Science, Faculty of Health Sciences , The University of Sydney , Sydney , NSW , Australia
| | - Rhonda Orr
- a Discipline of Exercise and Sports Science, Faculty of Health Sciences , The University of Sydney , Sydney , NSW , Australia
| | - Kenny Kuang
- a Discipline of Exercise and Sports Science, Faculty of Health Sciences , The University of Sydney , Sydney , NSW , Australia
| | - Mark Halaki
- a Discipline of Exercise and Sports Science, Faculty of Health Sciences , The University of Sydney , Sydney , NSW , Australia
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Franchi MV, Reeves ND, Narici MV. Skeletal Muscle Remodeling in Response to Eccentric vs. Concentric Loading: Morphological, Molecular, and Metabolic Adaptations. Front Physiol 2017; 8:447. [PMID: 28725197 PMCID: PMC5495834 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Skeletal muscle contracts either by shortening or lengthening (concentrically or eccentrically, respectively); however, the two contractions substantially differ from one another in terms of mechanisms of force generation, maximum force production and energy cost. It is generally known that eccentric actions generate greater force than isometric and concentric contractions and at a lower metabolic cost. Hence, by virtue of the greater mechanical loading involved in active lengthening, eccentric resistance training (ECC RT) is assumed to produce greater hypertrophy than concentric resistance training (CON RT). Nonetheless, prevalence of either ECC RT or CON RT in inducing gains in muscle mass is still an open issue, with some studies reporting greater hypertrophy with eccentric, some with concentric and some with similar hypertrophy within both training modes. Recent observations suggest that such hypertrophic responses to lengthening vs. shortening contractions are achieved by different adaptations in muscle architecture. Whilst the changes in muscle protein synthesis in response to acute and chronic concentric and eccentric exercise bouts seem very similar, the molecular mechanisms regulating the myogenic adaptations to the two distinct loading stimuli are still incompletely understood. Thus, the present review aims to, (a) critically discuss the literature on the contribution of eccentric vs. concentric loading to muscular hypertrophy and structural remodeling, and, (b) clarify the molecular mechanisms that may regulate such adaptations. We conclude that, when matched for either maximum load or work, similar increase in muscle size is found between ECC and CON RT. However, such hypertrophic changes appear to be achieved through distinct structural adaptations, which may be regulated by different myogenic and molecular responses observed between lengthening and shortening contractions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martino V Franchi
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research, School of Medicine, University of NottinghamDerby, United Kingdom.,Laboratory for Muscle Plasticity, Department of Orthopaedics, Balgrist University Hospital, University of ZurichZürich, Switzerland
| | - Neil D Reeves
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan UniversityManchester, United Kingdom
| | - Marco V Narici
- MRC-ARUK Centre for Musculoskeletal Ageing Research, School of Medicine, University of NottinghamDerby, United Kingdom
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30
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Resistance training performed at distinct angular velocities elicits velocity-specific alterations in muscle strength and mobility status in older adults. Exp Gerontol 2017; 91:51-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2017.02.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 01/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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31
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Jiménez-Reyes P, Samozino P, Brughelli M, Morin JB. Effectiveness of an Individualized Training Based on Force-Velocity Profiling during Jumping. Front Physiol 2017; 7:677. [PMID: 28119624 PMCID: PMC5220048 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Ballistic performances are determined by both the maximal lower limb power output (Pmax ) and their individual force-velocity (F-v) mechanical profile, especially the F-v imbalance (FVimb ): difference between the athlete's actual and optimal profile. An optimized training should aim to increase Pmax and/or reduce FVimb . The aim of this study was to test whether an individualized training program based on the individual F-v profile would decrease subjects' individual FVimb and in turn improve vertical jump performance. FVimb was used as the reference to assign participants to different training intervention groups. Eighty four subjects were assigned to three groups: an "optimized" group divided into velocity-deficit, force-deficit, and well-balanced sub-groups based on subjects' FVimb , a "non-optimized" group for which the training program was not specifically based on FVimb and a control group. All subjects underwent a 9-week specific resistance training program. The programs were designed to reduce FVimb for the optimized groups (with specific programs for sub-groups based on individual FVimb values), while the non-optimized group followed a classical program exactly similar for all subjects. All subjects in the three optimized training sub-groups (velocity-deficit, force-deficit, and well-balanced) increased their jumping performance (12.7 ± 5.7% ES = 0.93 ± 0.09, 14.2 ± 7.3% ES = 1.00 ± 0.17, and 7.2 ± 4.5% ES = 0.70 ± 0.36, respectively) with jump height improvement for all subjects, whereas the results were much more variable and unclear in the non-optimized group. This greater change in jump height was associated with a markedly reduced FVimb for both force-deficit (57.9 ± 34.7% decrease in FVimb ) and velocity-deficit (20.1 ± 4.3%) subjects, and unclear or small changes in Pmax (-0.40 ± 8.4% and +10.5 ± 5.2%, respectively). An individualized training program specifically based on FVimb (gap between the actual and optimal F-v profiles of each individual) was more efficient at improving jumping performance (i.e., unloaded squat jump height) than a traditional resistance training common to all subjects regardless of their FVimb . Although improving both FVimb and Pmax has to be considered to improve ballistic performance, the present results showed that reducing FVimb without even increasing Pmax lead to clearly beneficial jump performance changes. Thus, FVimb could be considered as a potentially useful variable for prescribing optimal resistance training to improve ballistic performance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pierre Samozino
- Laboratoire Interuniversitaire de Biologie de la motricité (EA7424), University of Savoie Mont BlancLe Bourget du Lac, France
| | - Matt Brughelli
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of TechnologyAuckland, New Zealand
| | - Jean-Benoît Morin
- Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of TechnologyAuckland, New Zealand
- Université Côte d'Azur, LAMHESSNice, France
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32
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Balshaw TG, Pahar M, Chesham R, Macgregor LJ, Hunter AM. Reduced firing rates of high threshold motor units in response to eccentric overload. Physiol Rep 2017; 5:e13111. [PMID: 28108648 PMCID: PMC5269413 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.13111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2016] [Revised: 12/08/2016] [Accepted: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute responses of motor units were investigated during submaximal voluntary isometric tasks following eccentric overload (EO) and constant load (CL) knee extension resistance exercise. Ten healthy resistance-trained participants performed four experimental test sessions separated by 5 days over a 20 day period. Two sessions involved constant load and the other two used eccentric overload. EO and CL used both sessions for different target knee eccentric extension phases; one at 2 sec and the other at 4 sec. Maximal voluntary contractions (MVC) and isometric trapezoid efforts for 10 sec at 70% MVC were completed before and after each intervention and decomposed electromyography was used to measure motor unit firing rate. The firing rate of later recruited, high-threshold motor units declined following the 2-sec EO but was maintained following 2sec CL (P < 0.05), whereas MUFR for all motor units were maintained for both loading types following 4-sec extension phases. MVC and rate of force development where maintained following both EO and CL and 2 and 4 sec phases. This study demonstrates a slower firing rate of high-threshold motor units following fast eccentric overload while MVC was maintained. This suggests that there was a neuromuscular stimulus without cost to the force-generating capacity of the knee extensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom G Balshaw
- Physiology, Exercise and Nutrition Research Group, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Madhu Pahar
- Computing Science and Mathematics, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Ross Chesham
- Physiology, Exercise and Nutrition Research Group, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Lewis J Macgregor
- Physiology, Exercise and Nutrition Research Group, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Angus M Hunter
- Physiology, Exercise and Nutrition Research Group, University of Stirling, Stirling, Scotland, United Kingdom
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33
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Wirth K, Hartmann H, Sander A, Mickel C, Szilvas E, Keiner M. The Impact of Back Squat and Leg-Press Exercises on Maximal Strength and Speed-Strength Parameters. J Strength Cond Res 2016; 30:1205-12. [PMID: 26439782 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000001228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Strength training-induced increases in speed strength seem indisputable. For trainers and athletes, the most efficient exercise selection in the phase of preparation is of interest. Therefore, this study determined how the selection of training exercise influences the development of speed strength and maximal strength during an 8-week training intervention. Seventy-eight students participated in this study (39 in the training group and 39 as controls). Both groups were divided into 2 subgroups. The first training group (squat training group [SQ]) completed an 8-week strength training protocol using the parallel squat. The second training group (leg-press training group [LP]) used the same training protocol using the leg press (45° leg press). The control group was divided in 2 subgroups as controls for the SQ or the LP. Two-factorial analyses of variance were performed using a repeated measures model for all group comparisons and comparisons between pretest and posttest results. The SQ exhibited a statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05) increase in jump performance in squat jump (SJ, 12.4%) and countermovement jump (CMJ, 12.0%). Whereas, the changes in the LP did not reach statistical significance and amounted to improvements in SJ of 3.5% and CMJ 0.5%. The differences between groups were statistically significant (p ≤ 0.05). There are also indications that the squat exercise is more effective to increase drop jump performance. Therefore, the squat exercise increased the performance in SJ, CMJ, and reactive strength index more effectively compared with the leg-press in a short-term intervention. Consequently, if the strength training aims at improving jump performance, the squat should be preferred because of the better transfer effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Wirth
- 1Institute of Sport Science, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University Frankfurt, Germany; 2University of Applied Sciences Wiener Neustadt, Austria; 3German Luge and Bobsled Federation, Germany; and 4Swimming Federation of the State Lower Saxony, Germany
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Wirth K, Keiner M, Hartmann H, Sander A, Mickel C. Effect of 8 weeks of free-weight and machine-based strength training on strength and power performance. J Hum Kinet 2016; 53:201-210. [PMID: 28149424 PMCID: PMC5260589 DOI: 10.1515/hukin-2016-0023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of free-weight and machine-based exercises to increase different strength and speed-strength variables. One hundred twenty male participants (age: 23.8 ± 2.5 years; body height: 181.0 ± 6.8 cm; body mass: 80.2 ± 8.9 kg) joined the study. The 2 experimental groups completed an 8 week periodized strength training program that included 2 training sessions per week. The exercises that were used in the strength training programs were the parallel barbell squat and the leg press. Before and after the training period, the 1-repetition-maximum in the barbell squat and the leg press, the squat jump, the countermovement jump and unilateral isometric force (maximal isometric force and the rate of force development) were evaluated. To compare each group pre vs. post-intervention, analysis of variance with repeated measures and Scheffé post-hoc tests were used. The leg press group increased their 1-repetition-maximum significantly (p < 0.001), while in the squat group such variables as 1-repetition-maximum, the squat jump and the countermovement jump increased significantly (p < 0.001). The maximal isometric force showed no statistically significant result for the repeated measures factor, while the rate of force development of the squat group even showed a statistically significant decrease. Differences between the 2 experimental groups were detected for the squat jump and the countermovement jump. In comparison with the leg press, the squat might be a better strength training exercise for the development of jump performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Wirth
- Institute of Training and Sport, University of Applied Sciences Vienna Neustadt, Austria
| | - Michael Keiner
- Swimming Federation of the State Lower Saxony, Hannover, Germany
| | - Hagen Hartmann
- Institute of Sports Sciences, Department of Human Movement Science and Athletic Training, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Andre Sander
- German Luge and Bobsled Federation, Berchtesgaden, Germany
| | - Christoph Mickel
- Institute of Sports Sciences, Department of Human Movement Science and Athletic Training, Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University, Frankfurt, Germany
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Walker S, Blazevich AJ, Haff GG, Tufano JJ, Newton RU, Häkkinen K. Greater Strength Gains after Training with Accentuated Eccentric than Traditional Isoinertial Loads in Already Strength-Trained Men. Front Physiol 2016; 7:149. [PMID: 27199764 PMCID: PMC4847223 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2016.00149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
As training experience increases it becomes more challenging to induce further neuromuscular adaptation. Consequently, strength trainers seek alternative training methods in order to further increase strength and muscle mass. One method is to utilize accentuated eccentric loading, which applies a greater external load during the eccentric phase of the lift as compared to the concentric phase. Based upon this practice, the purpose of this study was to determine the effects of 10 weeks of accentuated eccentric loading vs. traditional isoinertial resistance training in strength-trained men. Young (22 ± 3 years, 177 ± 6 cm, 76 ± 10 kg, n = 28) strength-trained men (2.6 ± 2.2 years experience) were allocated to concentric-eccentric resistance training in the form of accentuated eccentric load (eccentric load = concentric load + 40%) or traditional resistance training, while the control group continued their normal unsupervised training program. Both intervention groups performed three sets of 6-RM (session 1) and three sets of 10-RM (session 2) bilateral leg press and unilateral knee extension exercises per week. Maximum force production was measured by unilateral isometric (110° knee angle) and isokinetic (concentric and eccentric 30°.s−1) knee extension tests, and work capacity was measured by a knee extension repetition-to-failure test. Muscle mass was assessed using panoramic ultrasonography and dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Surface electromyogram amplitude normalized to maximum M-wave and the twitch interpolation technique were used to examine maximal muscle activation. After training, maximum isometric torque increased significantly more in the accentuated eccentric load group than control (18 ± 10 vs. 1 ± 5%, p < 0.01), which was accompanied by an increase in voluntary activation (3.5 ± 5%, p < 0.05). Isokinetic eccentric torque increased significantly after accentuated eccentric load training only (10 ± 9%, p < 0.05), whereas concentric torque increased equally in both the accentuated eccentric load (10 ± 9%, p < 0.01) and traditional (9 ± 6%, p < 0.01) resistance training groups; however, the increase in the accentuated eccentric load group was significantly greater (p < 0.05) than control (1 ± 7%). Knee extension repetition-to-failure improved in the accentuated eccentric load group only (28%, p < 0.05). Similar increases in muscle mass occurred in both intervention groups. In summary, accentuated eccentric load training led to greater increases in maximum force production, work capacity and muscle activation, but not muscle hypertrophy, in strength-trained individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Walker
- Department of Biology of Physical Activity and Neuromuscular Research Center, University of JyväskyläJyväskylä, Finland; School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Edith Cowan UniversityJoondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Anthony J Blazevich
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Edith Cowan University Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - G Gregory Haff
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Edith Cowan University Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - James J Tufano
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Edith Cowan University Joondalup, WA, Australia
| | - Robert U Newton
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Centre for Exercise and Sports Science Research, Edith Cowan UniversityJoondalup, WA, Australia; Institute of Human Performance, The University of Hong KongHong Kong, China
| | - Keijo Häkkinen
- Department of Biology of Physical Activity and Neuromuscular Research Center, University of Jyväskylä Jyväskylä, Finland
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36
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Neural adaptations to submaximal isokinetic eccentric strength training. Eur J Appl Physiol 2016; 116:1021-30. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-016-3367-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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TIMMINS RYANG, RUDDY JOSHUAD, PRESLAND JOEL, MANIAR NIRAV, SHIELD ANTHONYJ, WILLIAMS MORGAND, OPAR DAVIDA. Architectural Changes of the Biceps Femoris Long Head after Concentric or Eccentric Training. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2016; 48:499-508. [DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000000795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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38
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Wirth K, Keiner M, Szilvas E, Hartmann H, Sander A. Effects of Eccentric Strength Training on Different Maximal Strength and Speed-Strength Parameters of the Lower Extremity. J Strength Cond Res 2015; 29:1837-45. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Song Y, Forsgren S, Liu JX, Yu JG, Stål P. Unilateral muscle overuse causes bilateral changes in muscle fiber composition and vascular supply. PLoS One 2014; 9:e116455. [PMID: 25545800 PMCID: PMC4278887 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2013] [Accepted: 12/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Unilateral strength training can cause cross-transfer strength effects to the homologous contralateral muscles. However, the impact of the cross-over effects on the muscle tissue is unclear. To test the hypothesis that unilateral muscle overuse causes bilateral alterations in muscle fiber composition and vascular supply, we have used an experimental rabbit model with unilateral unloaded overstrain exercise via electrical muscle stimulation (E/EMS). The soleus (SOL) and gastrocnemius (GA) muscles of both exercised (E) and contralateral non-exercised (NE) legs (n = 24) were morphologically analyzed after 1 w, 3 w and 6 w of EMS. Non-exercised rabbits served as controls (n = 6). After unilateral intervention the muscles of both E and NE legs showed myositis and structural and molecular tissue changes that to various degrees mirrored each other. The fiber area was bilaterally smaller than in controls after 3 w of E/EMS in both SOL (E 4420 and NE 4333 µm2 vs. 5183 µm2, p<0.05) and GA (E 3572 and NE 2983 µm2 vs. 4697 µm2, p<0.02) muscles. After 6 w of E/EMS, the percentage of slow MyHCI fibers was lower than in controls in the NE legs of SOL (88.1% vs. 98.1%, p<0.009), while the percentage of fast MyHCIIa fibers was higher in the NE legs of GA (25.7% vs. 15.8%, p = 0.02). The number of capillaries around fibers in the E and NE legs was lower (SOL 13% and 15%, respectively, GA 25% and 23%, respectively, p<0.05) than in controls. The overall alterations were more marked in the fast GA muscle than in the slow SOL muscle, which on the other hand showed more histopathological muscle changes. We conclude that unilateral repetitive unloaded overuse exercise via EMS causes myositis and muscle changes in fiber type proportions, fiber area and fiber capillarization not only in the exercised leg, but also in the homologous muscles in the non-exercised leg.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yafeng Song
- Department of Integrative Medical Biology, Section for Anatomy, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Sture Forsgren
- Department of Integrative Medical Biology, Section for Anatomy, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Jing-Xia Liu
- Department of Integrative Medical Biology, Section for Anatomy, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Ji-Guo Yu
- Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences, Sports Medicine Unit, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Per Stål
- Department of Integrative Medical Biology, Section for Anatomy, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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Váczi M, Nagy SA, Kőszegi T, Ambrus M, Bogner P, Perlaki G, Orsi G, Tóth K, Hortobágyi T. Mechanical, hormonal, and hypertrophic adaptations to 10 weeks of eccentric and stretch-shortening cycle exercise training in old males. Exp Gerontol 2014; 58:69-77. [PMID: 25064038 DOI: 10.1016/j.exger.2014.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2013] [Revised: 07/13/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The growth promoting effects of eccentric (ECC) contractions are well documented but it is unknown if the rate of stretch per se plays a role in such muscular responses in healthy aging human skeletal muscle. We tested the hypothesis that exercise training of the quadriceps muscle with low rate ECC and high rate ECC contractions in the form of stretch-shortening cycles (SSCs) but at equal total mechanical work would produce rate-specific adaptations in healthy old males age 60-70. Both training programs produced similar improvements in maximal voluntary isometric (6%) and ECC torque (23%) and stretch-shortening cycle function (reduced contraction duration [24%] and enhanced elastic energy storage [12%]) (p<0.05). The rate of torque development increased 30% only after SSC exercise (p<0.05). Resting testosterone and cortisol levels were unchanged but after each program the acute exercise-induced cortisol levels were 12-15% lower (p<0.05). Both programs increased quadriceps size 2.5% (p<0.05). It is concluded that both ECC and SSC exercise training produces favorable adaptations in healthy old males' quadriceps muscle. Although the rate of muscle tension during the SSC vs. ECC contractions was about 4-fold greater, the total mechanical work seems to regulate the hypetrophic, hormonal, and most of the mechanical adaptations. However, SSC exercise was uniquely effective in improving a key deficiency of aging muscle, i.e., its ability to produce force rapidly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Márk Váczi
- Institute of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 6., 7624 Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Szilvia A Nagy
- Diagnostic Center of Pécs, Rét utca 2., 7623 Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Tamás Kőszegi
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, University of Pécs, Szigeti út 2., 7624 Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Míra Ambrus
- Institute of Sport Sciences and Physical Education, University of Pécs, Ifjúság útja 6., 7624 Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Péter Bogner
- Diagnostic Center of Pécs, Rét utca 2., 7623 Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Gábor Perlaki
- Diagnostic Center of Pécs, Rét utca 2., 7623 Pécs, Hungary; MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Rét utca 2., 7623 Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Gergely Orsi
- Diagnostic Center of Pécs, Rét utca 2., 7623 Pécs, Hungary; MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Rét utca 2., 7623 Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Katalin Tóth
- Department of Radiography, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pécs, 7400 Kaposvár, Hungary.
| | - Tibor Hortobágyi
- Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9700 AD Groningen, The Netherlands; Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK.
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González-Badillo JJ, Rodríguez-Rosell D, Sánchez-Medina L, Gorostiaga EM, Pareja-Blanco F. Maximal intended velocity training induces greater gains in bench press performance than deliberately slower half-velocity training. Eur J Sport Sci 2014; 14:772-81. [PMID: 24734902 DOI: 10.1080/17461391.2014.905987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the effect on strength gains of two isoinertial resistance training (RT) programmes that only differed in actual concentric velocity: maximal (MaxV) vs. half-maximal (HalfV) velocity. Twenty participants were assigned to a MaxV (n = 9) or HalfV (n = 11) group and trained 3 times per week during 6 weeks using the bench press (BP). Repetition velocity was controlled using a linear velocity transducer. A complementary study (n = 10) aimed to analyse whether the acute metabolic (blood lactate and ammonia) and mechanical response (velocity loss) was different between the MaxV and HalfV protocols used. Both groups improved strength performance from pre- to post-training, but MaxV resulted in significantly greater gains than HalfV in all variables analysed: one-repetition maximum (1RM) strength (18.2 vs. 9.7%), velocity developed against all (20.8 vs. 10.0%), light (11.5 vs. 4.5%) and heavy (36.2 vs. 17.3%) loads common to pre- and post-tests. Light and heavy loads were identified with those moved faster or slower than 0.80 m · s(-1) (∼ 60% 1RM in BP). Lactate tended to be significantly higher for MaxV vs. HalfV, with no differences observed for ammonia which was within resting values. Both groups obtained the greatest improvements at the training velocities (≤ 0.80 m · s(-1)). Movement velocity can be considered a fundamental component of RT intensity, since, for a given %1RM, the velocity at which loads are lifted largely determines the resulting training effect. BP strength gains can be maximised when repetitions are performed at maximal intended velocity.
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Vogt M, Hoppeler HH. Eccentric exercise: mechanisms and effects when used as training regime or training adjunct. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014; 116:1446-54. [PMID: 24505103 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00146.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the current review is to discuss applications and mechanism of eccentric exercise in training regimes of competitive sports. Eccentric muscle work is important in most sports. Eccentric muscle contractions enhance the performance during the concentric phase of stretch-shortening cycles, which is important in disciplines like sprinting, jumping, throwing, and running. Muscles activated during lengthening movements can also function as shock absorbers, to decelerate during landing tasks or to precisely deal with high external loading in sports like alpine skiing. The few studies available on trained subjects reveal that eccentric training can further enhance maximal muscle strength and power. It can further optimize muscle length for maximal tension development at a greater degree of extension, and has potential to improve muscle coordination during eccentric tasks. In skeletal muscles, these functional adaptations are based on increases in muscle mass, fascicle length, number of sarcomeres, and cross-sectional area of type II fibers. Identified modalities for eccentric loading in athletic populations involve classical isotonic exercises, accentuated jumping exercises, eccentric overloading exercises, and eccentric cycle ergometry. We conclude that eccentric exercise offers a promising training modality to enhance performance and to prevent injuries in athletes. However, further research is necessary to better understand how the neuromuscular system adapts to eccentric loading in athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Vogt
- Department of Anatomy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland; and Swiss Federal Institute of Sport, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Hans H Hoppeler
- Department of Anatomy, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland; and
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Guex K, Millet GP. Conceptual Framework for Strengthening Exercises to Prevent Hamstring Strains. Sports Med 2013; 43:1207-15. [DOI: 10.1007/s40279-013-0097-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Isner-Horobeti ME, Dufour SP, Vautravers P, Geny B, Coudeyre E, Richard R. Eccentric Exercise Training: Modalities, Applications and Perspectives. Sports Med 2013; 43:483-512. [DOI: 10.1007/s40279-013-0052-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Brody LT. Effective therapeutic exercise prescription: the right exercise at the right dose. J Hand Ther 2012; 25:220-31; quiz 232. [PMID: 22212491 DOI: 10.1016/j.jht.2011.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2011] [Revised: 09/20/2011] [Accepted: 09/27/2011] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The prescription of an effective therapeutic exercise program requires the right dosage of the right exercise, at the right time for that patient. The therapist must understand and apply training principles effectively in the presence of pathology, injury, or otherwise unhealthy tissue. The intervention goal is to close the gap between current performance and the desired goal or capacity. Although there may be a preferred linear path from current performance to optimal outcome, complexities of the human body, internal factors, and external variables may create barriers to this direct path. Successful programs include key program design considerations such as ensuring a stable baseline before progression, treating the right impairments and activity limitations, understanding contextual factors, considering the principles of specificity and optimal loading, and applying dosing principles. Program progression can be achieved through increases in total exercise volume and/or through manipulation of exercise challenges at the same exercise volume. Effective application of these principles will guide patients toward their goals as quickly and efficiently as possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori Thein Brody
- Senior Clinical Specialist, Spine and Sports Physical Therapy, UW Clinics Research Park, Madison, Wisconsin 53711, USA.
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Wilson JM, Loenneke JP, Jo E, Wilson GJ, Zourdos MC, Kim JS. The Effects of Endurance, Strength, and Power Training on Muscle Fiber Type Shifting. J Strength Cond Res 2012; 26:1724-9. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e318234eb6f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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47
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Mohamad NI, Cronin JB, Nosaka KK. Difference in kinematics and kinetics between high- and low-velocity resistance loading equated by volume: implications for hypertrophy training. J Strength Cond Res 2012; 26:269-75. [PMID: 22158146 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e31821f48de] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Although it is generally accepted that a high load is necessary for muscle hypertrophy, it is possible that a low load with a high velocity results in greater kinematics and kinetics than does a high load with a slow velocity. The purpose of this study was to determine if 2 training loads (35 and 70% 1 repetition maximum [1RM]) equated by volume, differed in terms of their session kinematic and kinetic characteristics. Twelve subjects were recruited in this acute randomized within-subject crossover design study. Two bouts of a half-squat exercise were performed 1 week apart, one with high load-low velocity (HLLV = 3 sets of 12 reps at 70% 1RM) and the other with low-load high-velocity (LLHV = 6 sets of 12 reps at 35% 1RM). Time under tension (TUT), average force, peak force (PF), average power (AP), peak power (PP), work (TW), and total impulse (TI) were calculated and compared between loads for the eccentric and concentric phases. For average eccentric and concentric single repetition values, significantly (p < 0.05) greater (∼15-22%) PP outputs were associated with the LLHV loading, whereas significantly greater (∼7-61%) values were associated with the HLLV condition for most other variables of interest. However, in terms of total session kinematics and kinetics, the LLHV protocol resulted in significantly greater (∼16-61%) eccentric and concentric TUT, PF, AP, PP, and TW. The only variable that was significantly greater for the HLLV protocol than for the LLHV protocol was TI (∼20-24%). From these results, it seems that the LLHV protocol may offer an equal if not better training stimulus for muscular adaptation than the HLLV protocol, because of the greater time under tension, power, force, and work output when the total volume of the exercise is equated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Ikhwan Mohamad
- School of Exercise, Biomedical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia.
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Kim E, Dear A, Ferguson SL, Seo D, Bemben MG. Effects of 4 Weeks of Traditional Resistance Training vs. Superslow Strength Training on Early Phase Adaptations in Strength, Flexibility, and Aerobic Capacity in College-Aged Women. J Strength Cond Res 2011; 25:3006-13. [PMID: 21993022 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0b013e318212e3a2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Eonho Kim
- Neuromuscular Research Laboratory, Department of Health and Exercise Science, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, USA.
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Nicastro H, Zanchi N, da Luz C, Lancha Jr. A. Functional and morphological effects of resistance exercise on disuse-induced skeletal muscle atrophy. Braz J Med Biol Res 2011; 44:1070-9. [DOI: 10.1590/s0100-879x2011007500125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2011] [Accepted: 09/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
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Barroso R, Roschel H, Ugrinowitsch C, Araújo R, Nosaka K, Tricoli V. Effect of eccentric contraction velocity on muscle damage in repeated bouts of elbow flexor exercise. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 2010; 35:534-40. [DOI: 10.1139/h10-042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Eccentric exercise induces muscle damage, but controversy exists concerning the effect of contraction velocity on the magnitude of muscle damage, and little is known about the effect of contraction velocity on the repeated-bout effect. This study examined slow (60°·s–1) and fast (180°·s–1) velocity eccentric exercises for changes in indirect markers of muscle damage following 3 exercise bouts that were performed every 2 weeks. Fifteen young men were divided into 2 groups based on the velocity of eccentric exercise: 7 in the Ecc60 (60°·s–1) group, and 8 in the Ecc180 (180°·s–1) group. The exercise consisted of 30 maximal eccentric contractions of the elbow flexors at each velocity, in which the elbow joint was forcibly extended from 60° to 180° (full extension) on an isokinetic dynamometer. Changes in maximal voluntary isometric contraction strength, range of motion, muscle soreness, and plasma creatine kinase activity before and for 4 days after the exercise were compared in the 2 groups using a mixed-model analysis (group × bout × time). No significant differences between groups were evident for changes in any variables following exercise bouts; however, the changes were significantly smaller (p < 0.05) after the second and third bouts than after the first bout. These results indicate that the contraction velocity does not influence muscle damage or the repeated-bout effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato Barroso
- School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- University São Judas Tadeu, Brazil
- Edith Cowan University, Australia
| | - Hamilton Roschel
- School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- University São Judas Tadeu, Brazil
- Edith Cowan University, Australia
| | - Carlos Ugrinowitsch
- School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- University São Judas Tadeu, Brazil
- Edith Cowan University, Australia
| | - Rubens Araújo
- School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- University São Judas Tadeu, Brazil
- Edith Cowan University, Australia
| | - Kazunori Nosaka
- School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- University São Judas Tadeu, Brazil
- Edith Cowan University, Australia
| | - Valmor Tricoli
- School of Physical Education and Sport, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- University São Judas Tadeu, Brazil
- Edith Cowan University, Australia
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