Comparative analysis of the Kekkon molecules, related members of the LIG superfamily

Evolutionary dynamics of sex-biased genes expressed in cricket brains and gonads

Sex-biased gene expression, particularly sex-biased expression in the gonad, has been linked to rates of protein sequence evolution (nonsynonymous to synonymous substitutions, dN/dS) in animals. However, in insects, sex-biased expression studies remain centred on a few holometabolous species. Moreover, other major tissue types such as the brain remain underexplored. Here, we studied sex-biased gene expression and protein evolution in a hemimetabolous insect, the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus. We generated novel male and female RNA-seq data for two sexual tissue types, the gonad and somatic reproductive system, and for two core components of the nervous system, the brain and ventral nerve cord. From a genome-wide analysis, we report several core findings. Firstly, testis-biased genes had accelerated evolution, as compared to ovary-biased and unbiased genes, which was associated with positive selection events. Secondly, although sex-biased brain genes were much less common than for the gonad, they exhibited a striking tendency for rapid protein sequence evolution, an effect that was stronger for the female than male brain. Further, some sex-biased brain genes were linked to sexual functions and mating behaviours, which we suggest may have accelerated their evolution via sexual selection. Thirdly, a tendency for narrow cross-tissue expression breadth, suggesting low pleiotropy, was observed for sex-biased brain genes, suggesting relaxed purifying selection, which we speculate may allow enhanced freedom to evolve adaptive protein functional changes. The findings of rapid evolution of testis-biased genes and male and female-biased brain genes are discussed with respect to pleiotropy, positive selection and the mating biology of this cricket.

A novel LRR and Ig domain-containing protein could function as an immune effector in Crassostrea gigas

A variety of combinations of leucine-rich repeat (LRR) and immunoglobulin-like (Ig) domains have been found and discovered in invertebrates and vertebrates, but the functions remain largely unexplored. In the present study, a novel LRR and Ig domain-containing protein (LRRIG), CgLRRIG-3, was identified and characterized from oyster Crassostrea gigas. It contained two typical LRR motifs, a LRRNT motif and an Ig domain and PSI-BALST and phylogeny analysis revealed that the sequence of CgLRRIG-3 was most related with leucine-rich repeat neuronal 1 proteins from vertebrate. Its mRNA transcripts were constitutively expressed in muscle, gill, hepatopancreas, mantle, gonad and hemocytes with the highest level in hepatopancreas. The mRNA expression level of CgLRRIG-3 in hemocytes could respond to the stimulations of variety PAMPs including lipopolysaccharide (LPS), peptidoglycan (PGN), glucan (GLU) and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly I:C). The recombinant proteins exhibited a wide PAMP binding repertoire to four typical PAMPs and could significantly induce the expression of CgTNF-1 and CgIL17-5 as well as increase phagocytosis in primary cultured oyster hemocytes. In hepatopancreas, CgLRRIG-3 was mainly distributed in the basolateral membrane of digestive tubule and the hemocoel sinusoid between the digestive tubules. And in hemocytes, the positive signal was mainly distributed in a special group of granulocytes. These results collectively indicated that CgLRRIG-3 could not only function as an immune effector.

Two novel LRR and Ig domain-containing proteins from oyster Crassostrea gigas function as pattern recognition receptors and induce expression of cytokines

Leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain and immunoglobulin (Ig) domain are both competent immune recognition modules, and the immunological roles of LRR and Ig domain containing- proteins (LRRIGs) are speculated to be multifunctional and worth investigating. In the present study, two novel LRRIGs, CgLRRIG-1 and CgLRRIG-2, were identified and characterized from oyster Crassostrea gigas. Both of them contained an N-terminal LRR region, an Ig domain, a transmembrane region, and a C-terminal cytoplasmic tail. The mRNA transcripts of CgLRRIG-1 and CgLRRIG-2 were constitutively expressed in muscle, gill, hepatopancreas, mantle, gonad and hemocytes with the highest expression level in hepatopancreas. Their mRNA expression levels in hemocytes were significantly up-regulated after the stimulations with four PAMPs including peptidoglycan (PGN), lipopolysaccharide (LPS), glucan (GLU) and polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly I:C) and one bacteria Vibrio anguillarum. The recombinant proteins, rCgLRRIG-1 and rCgLRRIG-2, could bind to PGN, LPS, GLU and poly I:C, and rCgLRRIG-2 exhibited higher binding affinity. Additionally, rCgLRRIG-1 and rCgLRRIG-2 could significantly induce the expression of CgTNF-1 and CgIL17-5 in cultured oyster hemocytes, and the activity of rCgLRRIG-2 was higher than that of rCgLRRIG-1. All these results indicated that CgLRRIG-1 and CgLRRIG-2 could function as immune effectors or pro-inflammatory factors as well as PRRs in oyster.

Kek-6: A truncated-Trk-like receptor for Drosophila neurotrophin 2 regulates structural synaptic plasticity

Neurotrophism, structural plasticity, learning and long-term memory in mammals critically depend on neurotrophins binding Trk receptors to activate tyrosine kinase (TyrK) signaling, but Drosophila lacks full-length Trks, raising the question of how these processes occur in the fly. Paradoxically, truncated Trk isoforms lacking the TyrK predominate in the adult human brain, but whether they have neuronal functions independently of full-length Trks is unknown. Drosophila has TyrK-less Trk-family receptors, encoded by the kekkon (kek) genes, suggesting that evolutionarily conserved functions for this receptor class may exist. Here, we asked whether Keks function together with Drosophila neurotrophins (DNTs) at the larval glutamatergic neuromuscular junction (NMJ). We tested the eleven LRR and Ig-containing (LIG) proteins encoded in the Drosophila genome for expression in the central nervous system (CNS) and potential interaction with DNTs. Kek-6 is expressed in the CNS, interacts genetically with DNTs and can bind DNT2 in signaling assays and co-immunoprecipitations. Ligand binding is promiscuous, as Kek-6 can also bind DNT1, and Kek-2 and Kek-5 can also bind DNT2. In vivo, Kek-6 is found presynaptically in motoneurons, and DNT2 is produced by the muscle to function as a retrograde factor at the NMJ. Kek-6 and DNT2 regulate NMJ growth and synaptic structure. Evidence indicates that Kek-6 does not antagonise the alternative DNT2 receptor Toll-6. Instead, Kek-6 and Toll-6 interact physically, and together regulate structural synaptic plasticity and homeostasis. Using pull-down assays, we identified and validated CaMKII and VAP33A as intracellular partners of Kek-6, and show that they regulate NMJ growth and active zone formation downstream of DNT2 and Kek-6. The synaptic functions of Kek-6 could be evolutionarily conserved. This raises the intriguing possibility that a novel mechanism of structural synaptic plasticity involving truncated Trk-family receptors independently of TyrK signaling may also operate in the human brain.

A long-standing paradox had been to explain how brain structural plasticity, learning and long-term memory might occur in Drosophila in the absence of canonical Trk receptors for neurotrophin (NT) ligands. NTs link structure and function in the brain enabling adjustments in cell number, dendritic, axonal and synaptic patterns, in response to neuronal activity. These events are essential for brain development, learning and long-term memory, and are thought to depend on the tyrosine-kinase function of the NT Trk receptors. However, paradoxically, the most abundant Trk isoforms in the adult human brain lack the tyrosine kinase, and their neuronal function is unknown. Remarkably, Drosophila has kinase-less receptors of the Trk family encoded by the kekkon (kek) genes, suggesting that deep evolutionary functional conservation for this receptor class could be unveiled. Here, we show that Kek-6 is a receptor for Drosophila neurotrophin 2 (DNT2) that regulates structural synaptic plasticity via CaMKII and VAP33A. The latter are well-known factors regulating synaptic structure and plasticity and vesicle release. Furthemore, Kek-6 cooperates with the alternative DNT2 receptor Toll-6, and their concerted functions are required to regulate structural homeostasis at the NMJ. Our findings suggest that in mammals truncated Trk-family receptors could also have synaptic functions in neurons independently of Tyrosine kinase signaling. This might reveal a novel mechanism of brain plasticity, with important implications for understanding also the human brain, in health and disease.

Frizzled3 controls axonal development in distinct populations of cranial and spinal motor neurons

Disruption of the Frizzled3 (Fz3) gene leads to defects in axonal growth in the VII^th and XII^th cranial motor nerves, the phrenic nerve, and the dorsal motor nerve in fore- and hindlimbs. In Fz3^−/− limbs, dorsal axons stall at a precise location in the nerve plexus, and, in contrast to the phenotypes of several other axon path-finding mutants, Fz3^−/− dorsal axons do not reroute to other trajectories. Affected motor neurons undergo cell death 2 days prior to the normal wave of developmental cell death that coincides with innervation of muscle targets, providing in vivo evidence for the idea that developing neurons with long-range axons are programmed to die unless their axons arrive at intermediate targets on schedule. These experiments implicate planar cell polarity (PCP) signaling in motor axon growth and they highlight the question of how PCP proteins, which form cell–cell complexes in epithelia, function in the dynamic context of axonal growth.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01482.001

For the nervous system to become wired up correctly, neurons within the developing embryo must project over long distances to form connections with remote targets. They do this by lengthening their axons—the ‘cables’ along which electrical signals flow—and some axons in adult humans can grow to be more than 1 metre long.

This type of long-range pathfinding activity is particularly common for neurons that control movement, as many of these neurons must establish connections with muscles that are some distance away from the brain. For example, motor neurons in the brainstem form connections with muscles in the face to control facial expressions, while motor neurons in parts of the spinal cord project to muscles in the limbs. Multiple signaling pathways tell the developing axons which direction to grow en route to their final targets.

Now, Hua et al. have shown that an evolutionarily conserved protein called Frizzled3 is also involved in this process. In mouse embryos that lacked Frizzled3, the motor nerves that control breathing and limb movements were thinner than those in normal mice. In the mutant animals, many motor axons failed to form connections with their targets. Instead, these axons came to an abrupt halt midway along their intended paths and the neurons from which they originated died soon afterwards. These experiments support the idea that developing neurons are programmed to die unless their axons progress on the appropriate schedule.

As well as increasing our knowledge of the networks of connections that form within the developing mammalian nervous system, the work of Hua et al. provides new insights into some of the molecular mechanisms by which these connections are established.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01482.002

In vivo analysis of Lrig genes reveals redundant and independent functions in the inner ear

Lrig proteins are conserved transmembrane proteins that modulate a variety of signaling pathways from worm to humans. In mammals, there are three family members – Lrig1, Lrig2, and Lrig3 – that are defined by closely related extracellular domains with a similar arrangement of leucine rich repeats and immunoglobulin domains. However, the intracellular domains show little homology. Lrig1 inhibits EGF signaling through internalization and degradation of ErbB receptors. Although Lrig3 can also bind ErbB receptors in vitro, it is unclear whether Lrig2 and Lrig3 exhibit similar functions to Lrig1. To gain insights into Lrig gene functions in vivo, we compared the expression and function of the Lrigs in the inner ear, which offers a sensitive system for detecting effects on morphogenesis and function. We find that all three family members are expressed in the inner ear throughout development, with Lrig1 and Lrig3 restricted to subsets of cells and Lrig2 expressed more broadly. Lrig1 and Lrig3 overlap prominently in the developing vestibular apparatus and simultaneous removal of both genes disrupts inner ear morphogenesis. This suggests that these two family members act redundantly in the otic epithelium. In contrast, although Lrig1 and Lrig2 are frequently co-expressed, Lrig1^−/−;Lrig2^−/− double mutant ears show no enhanced structural abnormalities. At later stages, Lrig1 expression is sustained in non-sensory tissues, whereas Lrig2 levels are enhanced in neurons and sensory epithelia. Consistent with these distinct expression patterns, Lrig1 and Lrig2 mutant mice exhibit different forms of impaired auditory responsiveness. Notably, Lrig1^−/−;Lrig2^−/− double mutant mice display vestibular deficits and suffer from a more severe auditory defect that is accompanied by a cochlear innervation phenotype not present in single mutants. Thus, Lrig genes appear to act both redundantly and independently, with Lrig2 emerging as the most functionally distinct family member.

The mammalian genome encodes three Lrig family members - Lrig1, Lrig2, and Lrig3. Lrig proteins share a characteristic extracellular domain that can bind to a variety of signaling receptors, but the three family members show little homology in the cytoplasmic domain. Lrig1 is a tumor suppressor gene required for normal EGF signaling. Whether Lrig2 and Lrig3 play similar roles is not known. To address this gap in knowledge, we compared the expression and function of Lrigs in the mouse inner ear, which is responsible for hearing and balance. Even subtle changes in the inner ear cause easily detected deficits in hearing and balance, making it an ideal system for analysis of gene function. We find that Lrigs can act both redundantly and independently in the inner ear, with Lrig1 and Lrig3 cooperating to control morphogenesis and Lrig1 and Lrig2 acting independently to ensure proper cochlear function. However, loss of both Lrig1 and Lrig2 causes a more severe auditory response deficit and additionally causes a vestibular defect, suggesting some overlapping activities. Our findings provide new insights into the in vivo functions for the Lrig genes, which play important roles in vertebrate development and disease.

Lrig1 is an estrogen-regulated growth suppressor and correlates with longer relapse-free survival in ERα-positive breast cancer

Lrig1 is the founding member of the Lrig family and has been implicated in the negative regulation of several oncogenic receptor tyrosine kinases including ErbB2. Lrig1 is expressed at low levels in several cancer types but is overexpressed in some prostate and colorectal tumors. Given this heterogeneity, whether Lrig1 functions to suppress or promote tumor growth remains a critical question. Previously, we found that Lrig1 was poorly expressed in ErbB2-positive breast cancer, suggesting that Lrig1 has a growth-inhibitory role in this tumor type. However, breast cancer is a complex disease, with ErbB2-positive tumors accounting for just 25% of all breast cancers. To gain a better understanding of the role of Lrig1 in breast cancer, we examined its expression in estrogen receptor α (ERα)-positive disease which accounts for the majority of breast cancers. We find that Lrig1 is expressed at significantly higher levels in ERα-positive disease than in ERα-negative disease. Our study provides a molecular rationale for Lrig1 enrichment in ERα-positive disease by showing that Lrig1 is a target of ERα. Estrogen stimulates Lrig1 accumulation and disruption of this induction enhances estrogen-dependent tumor cell growth, suggesting that Lrig1 functions as an estrogen-regulated growth suppressor. In addition, we find that Lrig1 expression correlates with prolonged relapse-free survival in ERα-positive breast cancer, identifying Lrig1 as a new prognostic marker in this setting. Finally, we show that ErbB2 activation antagonizes ERα-driven Lrig1 expression, providing a mechanistic explanation for Lrig1 loss in ErbB2-positive breast cancer. This work provides strong evidence for a growth-inhibitory role for Lrig1 in breast cancer.

Caenorhabditis elegans SMA-10/LRIG is a conserved transmembrane protein that enhances bone morphogenetic protein signaling

Bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) pathways control an array of developmental and homeostatic events, and must themselves be exquisitely controlled. Here, we identify Caenorhabditis elegans SMA-10 as a positive extracellular regulator of BMP-like receptor signaling. SMA-10 acts genetically in a BMP-like (Sma/Mab) pathway between the ligand DBL-1 and its receptors SMA-6 and DAF-4. We cloned sma-10 and show that it has fifteen leucine-rich repeats and three immunoglobulin-like domains, hallmarks of an LRIG subfamily of transmembrane proteins. SMA-10 is required in the hypodermis, where the core Sma/Mab signaling components function. We demonstrate functional conservation of LRIGs by rescuing sma-10(lf) animals with the Drosophila ortholog lambik, showing that SMA-10 physically binds the DBL-1 receptors SMA-6 and DAF-4 and enhances signaling in vitro. This interaction is evolutionarily conserved, evidenced by LRIG1 binding to vertebrate receptors. We propose a new role for LRIG family members: the positive regulation of BMP signaling by binding both Type I and Type II receptors.

LIG family receptor tyrosine kinase-associated proteins modulate growth factor signals during neural development

Genome-wide screens were performed to identify transmembrane proteins that mediate axonal growth, guidance and target field innervation of somatosensory neurons. One gene, Linx (alias Islr2), encoding a leucine-rich repeat and immunoglobulin (LIG) family protein, is expressed in a subset of developing sensory and motor neurons. Domain and genomic structures of Linx and other LIG family members suggest that they are evolutionarily related to Trk receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). Several LIGs, including Linx, are expressed in subsets of somatosensory and motor neurons, and select members interact with TrkA and Ret RTKs. Moreover, axonal projection defects in mice harboring a null mutation in Linx resemble those in mice lacking Ngf, TrkA, and Ret. In addition, Linx modulates NGF-TrkA- and GDNF-GFRalpha1/Ret-mediated axonal extension in cultured sensory and motor neurons, respectively. These findings show that LIGs physically interact with RTKs and modulate their activities to control axonal extension, guidance and branching.

Kekkon5 is an extracellular regulator of BMP signaling

Precise spatial and temporal control of Drosophila Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) signaling is achieved by a host of extracellular factors that modulate ligand distribution and activity. Here we describe Kekkon5 (Kek5), a transmembrane protein containing leucine-rich repeats (LRRs), as a novel regulator of BMP signaling in Drosophila. We find that loss or gain of kek5 disrupts crossvein development and alters the early profile of phosphorylated Mad and dSRF in presumptive crossvein cells. kek5 phenotypic effects closely mimic those observed with Short gastrulation (Sog), but do not completely recapitulate the effects of dominant negative BMP receptors. We further demonstrate that Kek5 is able to antagonize the BMP ligand Glass bottom boat (Gbb) and that the Kek5 LRRs are required for BMP inhibitory activity, while the Ig domain is dispensable in this context. Our identification of Kek5 as a modulator of BMP signaling supports the emerging notion that LIG proteins function as diverse regulators of cellular communication.

Comparative genomic analysis of novel conserved peptide upstream open reading frames in Drosophila melanogaster and other dipteran species

BACKGROUND

Upstream open reading frames (uORFs) are elements found in the 5'-region of an mRNA transcript, capable of regulating protein production of the largest, or major ORF (mORF), and impacting organismal development and growth in fungi, plants, and animals. In Drosophila, approximately 40% of transcripts contain upstream start codons (uAUGs) but there is little evidence that these are translated and affect their associated mORF.

RESULTS

Analyzing 19,389 Drosophila melanogaster transcript annotations and 666,153 dipteran EST sequences we have identified 44 putative conserved peptide uORFs (CPuORFs) in Drosophila melanogaster that show evidence of negative selection, and therefore are likely to be translated. Transcripts with CPuORFs constitute approximately 0.3% of the total number of transcripts, a similar frequency to the Arabidopsis genome, and have a mean length of 70 amino acids, much larger than the mean length of plant CPuORFs (40 amino acids). There is a statistically significant clustering of CPuORFs at cytological band 57 (p = 10-5), a phenomenon that has never been described for uORFs. Based on GO term and Interpro domain analyses, genes in the uORF dataset show a higher frequency of ORFs implicated in mitochondrial import than the genome-wide frequency (p < 0.01) as well as methyltransferases (p < 0.02).

CONCLUSION

Based on these data, it is clear that Drosophila contain putative CPuORFs at frequencies similar to those found in plants. They are distinguished, however, by the type of mORF they tend to associate with, Drosophila CPuORFs preferentially occurring in transcripts encoding mitochondrial proteins and methyltransferases. This provides a basis for the study of CPuORFs and their putative regulatory role in mitochondrial function and disease.

Argos Mutants Define an Affinity Threshold for Spitz Inhibition in Vivo

Argos, a secreted antagonist of Drosophila epidermal growth factor receptor (dEGFR) signaling, acts by sequestering the activating ligand Spitz. To understand how different domains in Argos contribute to efficient Spitz sequestration, we performed a genetic screen aimed at uncovering modifiers of an Argos misexpression phenotype in the developing eye. We identified a series of suppressors mapping to the Argos transgene that affect its activity in multiple developmental contexts. These point mutations map to both the N- and C-terminal cysteine-rich regions, implicating both domains in Argos function. We show by surface plasmon resonance that these Argos mutants are deficient in their ability to bind Spitz in vitro. Our data indicate that a mere approximately 2-fold decrease in K(D) is sufficient to compromise Argos activity in vivo. This effect could be recapitulated in a cell-based assay, where a higher molar concentration of mutant Argos was needed to inhibit Spitz-dependent dEGFR phosphorylation. In contrast, a approximately 37-fold decrease in the binding constant nearly abolishes Argos activity in vivo and in cellular assays. In agreement with previously reported computational studies, our results define an affinity threshold for optimal Argos inhibition of dEGFR signaling during development.

ErbB receptor negative regulatory mechanisms: implications in cancer

Activation of ErbB receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) must be precisely regulated to ensure the fidelity of developmental and homeostatic processes mediated by growth factors. Insufficient receptor stimulation will lead to defects in tissue development, while excessive stimulation can lead to hyperplastic events associated with cancer and other diseases. A coordinated balance of the intensity and timing of receptor signaling, achieved through both receptor activation and negative regulatory mechanisms, is required for signaling fidelity. While considerable effort has gone into understanding mechanisms by which ErbB receptors are activated, our understanding of the suppression of growth factor receptor activity remains limited. While ligand-stimulated receptor degradation is the most thoroughly examined mechanism for preventing hyper-signaling by ErbBs, recent studies indicate that several other mechanisms act directly on receptors to suppress receptor levels, or the magnitude or duration of receptor signaling. ErbB receptor overexpression or aberrant activation contributes to the progression of numerous solid tumor types. Hence, tumor cells must overcome these endogenous receptor negative regulatory mechanisms before they can exploit ErbB receptors to achieve uncontrolled growth. Here we will discuss several proteins that directly interact with ErbB receptors to suppress signaling, highlighting the potential impact of their loss on tumor progression.

Genome-Wide Transcriptional Changes Associated with Enhanced Activity in the Drosophila Nervous System

Neuronal plasticity is an important feature of the developing brain and requires neuronal circuits to reconfigure their functional connectivity depending upon activity patterns. To explore changes in neuronal function that occur downstream of altered activity, we performed an expression analysis in Drosophila mutants with acute or chronic alterations in neuronal activity. We find that seizure induction leads to an overproliferation of synaptic connections, indicating that activity-dependent neuronal rewiring occurs in Drosophila. To analyze transcriptional recoding during altered neuronal activity, we performed genome-wide DNA microarray analysis following multiple seizure induction and recovery paradigms. Approximately 250 genes implicated in cell adhesion, membrane excitability, and cellular signaling are differentially regulated, including the Kek 2 neuronal cell adhesion protein, which, as we demonstrate, functions as a regulator of synaptic growth. These data identify a collection of activity-regulated transcripts that may link changes in neuronal firing patterns to transcription-dependent modulation of brain function, including activity-dependent synaptic rewiring.

Negative regulation of receptor tyrosine kinases: unexpected links to c-Cbl and receptor ubiquitylation

Intracellular signals mediated by the family of receptor tyrosine kinases play pivotal roles in morphogenesis, cell fate determination and pathogenesis. Precise control of signal amplitude and duration is critical for the fidelity and robustness of these processes. Activation of receptor tyrosine kinases by their cognate growth factors not only leads to propagation of the signal through various biochemical cascades, but also sets in motion multiple attenuation mechanisms that ultimately terminate the active state. Early attenuators pre-exist prior to receptor activation and they act to limit signal propagation. Subsequently, late attenuators, such as Lrig and Sprouty, are transcriptionally induced and further act to dampen the signal. Central to the process of signaling attenuation is the role of the E3 ubiquitin ligase c-Cbl. While Cbl-mediated processes of receptor ubiquitylation and endocytosis are relatively well understood, the links of Cbl to other negative regulators are just now beginning to be appreciated. Here we review some emerging interfaces between Cbl and the transcriptionally induced negative regulators Lrig and Sprouty.

LRIG1 restricts growth factor signaling by enhancing receptor ubiquitylation and degradation

Kekkon proteins negatively regulate the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) during oogenesis in Drosophila. Their structural relative in mammals, LRIG1, is a transmembrane protein whose inactivation in rodents promotes skin hyperplasia, suggesting involvement in EGFR regulation. We report upregulation of LRIG1 transcript and protein upon EGF stimulation, and physical association of the encoded protein with the four EGFR orthologs of mammals. Upregulation of LRIG1 is followed by enhanced ubiquitylation and degradation of EGFR. The underlying mechanism involves recruitment of c-Cbl, an E3 ubiquitin ligase that simultaneously ubiquitylates EGFR and LRIG1 and sorts them for degradation. We conclude that LRIG1 evolved in mammals as a feedback negative attenuator of signaling by receptor tyrosine kinases.