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Martinez-Levasseur LM, Simard M, Furgal CM, Burness G, Bertrand P, Suppa S, Avard E, Lemire M. Towards a better understanding of the benefits and risks of country food consumption using the case of walruses in Nunavik (Northern Quebec, Canada). THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 719:137307. [PMID: 32143094 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Revised: 02/12/2020] [Accepted: 02/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Food insecurity affects Inuit communities. One solution is to consume locally harvested foods, named country foods. However, some country foods are not eaten as often as before, and pressures including contaminants and environmental changes threaten the health of Arctic fauna, thus its suitability for local consumption. By combining Inuit Knowledge with laboratory data, our study assessed the benefits and risks of walrus consumption by Inuit in Nunavik, Québec, Canada. It aimed to increase understanding of: 1) the hunt of healthy Atlantic walruses (Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus); 2) the safe preparation of walruses; 3) the nutritional benefits and risks of consuming walruses. To do so, we interviewed 34 hunters and Elders from Nunavik. Levels of mercury, omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and selenium were evaluated from locally harvested walruses. Through the Nunavik Trichinellosis Prevention Program, a total of 755 Atlantic walrus samples, collected between 1994 and 2013, were tested for Trichinella nativa. Information on botulism was reviewed. While interviews informed on how to select healthy walruses and prepare them for consumption, laboratory analyses revealed that walruses had elevated levels of omega-3 fatty acids and selenium but low levels of mercury compared to some other wildlife. Only 3% of the 755 walruses were infected with T. nativa. Most walruses' infections were found within individuals from the South East Hudson Bay stock, where Inuit have thus decided to stop hunting since mid-2000s. Finally, although the number of outbreaks of trichinellosis related to the consumption of walruses has significantly reduced in Nunavik, botulism could continue to be an issue when igunaq (i.e. aged walrus) is not properly prepared. With the support of the Nunavik Trichinellosis Prevention Program and transmission of Inuit knowledge on igunaq preparation, the consumption of Atlantic walruses has the potential to help address issues related to food insecurity in Nunavik in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Martinez-Levasseur
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2, Canada; Indigenous Environmental Studies & Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2, Canada.
| | - M Simard
- Nunavik Research Centre, Makivik Corporation, Kuujjuaq, Québec J0M 1C0, Canada
| | - C M Furgal
- Indigenous Environmental Studies & Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2, Canada
| | - G Burness
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario K9L 0G2, Canada
| | - P Bertrand
- Department of Biology and Center for Northern Studies, Université du Québec, Rimouski, QC G5L 3A1, Canada; Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, Tromsø 9296, Norway
| | - S Suppa
- Nunavik Research Centre, Makivik Corporation, Kuujjuaq, Québec J0M 1C0, Canada
| | - E Avard
- Nunavik Research Centre, Makivik Corporation, Kuujjuaq, Québec J0M 1C0, Canada
| | - M Lemire
- Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Université Laval, Québec City, Québec, Canada; Axe Santé des populations et pratiques optimales en santé, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec, Université Laval, 1050 Chemin Ste-Foy, Québec City, Québec G1S 4L8, Canada
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Ducrocq J, Proulx JF, Simard M, Lévesque B, Iqaluk M, Elijassiapik L, Ningiuk E, Perkins P, Jacques S, Lemire M. The unique contribution of a local response group in the field investigation and management of a trichinellosis outbreak in Nunavik (Québec, Canada). Canadian Journal of Public Health 2019; 111:31-39. [PMID: 31637676 DOI: 10.17269/s41997-019-00255-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
SETTING Consumption of raw game meats is important for Inuit health and well-being but may sometimes increase risk of exposure to parasites. In Nunavik, following trichinellosis outbreaks in the 1980s caused by raw walrus consumption, a diagnostic test was developed for the region and offered to all Inuit communities by 1997. Despite this prevention program, an important trichinellosis outbreak occurred in 2013, affecting 18 inhabitants of Inukjuak. INTERVENTION Because the classical outbreak investigation did not rapidly converge toward a common food source or specific event, a local response group, composed of four community members appointed by the Municipal Council as well as the regional public health physician, nurse and wildlife parasitologist, was created. Their objective was to investigate potential sources of infection related to the outbreak, hence the investigation of the types of meats consumed, the movement of meats between and within the community, and the local practices of processing game meat. OUTCOMES Though the source of infection was not fully confirmed, this local investigation identified the distribution of transformed polar bear meat as the most probable source of infection. The creation of this unique, intersectoral and intercultural local response group fostered the use of local knowledge to better understand aspects of the modern food system, and is one of the most innovative outcomes of this investigation. IMPLICATIONS Integrating multiple ways of knowing was critical for the management of this important public health issue and contributed to community members' mobilization and empowerment with respect to local food safety issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Ducrocq
- Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Université Laval, 2325 Rue de l'Université, Québec, Québec, G1V 0A6, Canada. .,Axe des populations et pratiques optimales en santé, Centre de recherche du Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, 1050 Chemin Ste-Foy, Québec City, Québec, G1S 4L8, Canada.
| | - Jean-François Proulx
- Nunavik Regional Board of Health and Social Services, C.P. 900, Kuujjuaq, Québec, J0M 1C0, Canada
| | - Manon Simard
- Nunavik Research Centre, Makivik Corporation, Kuujjuaq, Québec, J0M 1C0, Canada
| | - Benoit Lévesque
- Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Université Laval, 2325 Rue de l'Université, Québec, Québec, G1V 0A6, Canada.,Axe des populations et pratiques optimales en santé, Centre de recherche du Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, 1050 Chemin Ste-Foy, Québec City, Québec, G1S 4L8, Canada.,Direction de la santé environnementale et de la toxicologie, Institut national de santé publique du Québec, 945 avenue Wolfe, Québec, Québec, G1V 5B3, Canada
| | - Martha Iqaluk
- Members of the Inuit community of Inukjuak, Nunavik, Québec, Québec, J0M 1M0, Canada
| | - Lisa Elijassiapik
- Members of the Inuit community of Inukjuak, Nunavik, Québec, Québec, J0M 1M0, Canada
| | - Etok Ningiuk
- Members of the Inuit community of Inukjuak, Nunavik, Québec, Québec, J0M 1M0, Canada
| | - Pamela Perkins
- Nunavik Regional Board of Health and Social Services, C.P. 900, Kuujjuaq, Québec, J0M 1C0, Canada
| | - Solange Jacques
- Nunavik Regional Board of Health and Social Services, C.P. 900, Kuujjuaq, Québec, J0M 1C0, Canada
| | - Mélanie Lemire
- Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Université Laval, 2325 Rue de l'Université, Québec, Québec, G1V 0A6, Canada.,Axe des populations et pratiques optimales en santé, Centre de recherche du Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Québec, 1050 Chemin Ste-Foy, Québec City, Québec, G1S 4L8, Canada
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Nicholas B, Ravel A, Leighton P, Stephen C, Iqbal A, Ndao M, Konecsni K, Fernando C, Jenkins E. Foxes ( Vulpes vulpes) as sentinels for parasitic zoonoses, Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella nativa, in the northeastern Canadian Arctic. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2018; 7:391-397. [PMID: 30370219 PMCID: PMC6199765 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2018.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Outbreaks of Toxoplasma gondii and Trichinella spp. have been recurring for decades among Inuit of Nunavik, northeastern Canada. Contact with wildlife has been identified as a risk factor for Inuit exposure to T. gondii, but reservoirs have yet to be confirmed based on direct detection of DNA or organism. Similarly, little is known about the occurrence of Trichinella spp. in wildlife species of Nunavik other than walrus (Odobenus rosmarus) and bears (Ursus americanus, Ursus maritimus). Foxes (Vulpes vulpes) were targeted as possible sentinels for T. gondii and Trichinella spp. because of their high trophic position within the Arctic food chain as carnivorous scavengers. A total of 39 red foxes were sampled from four communities in southern and western Nunavik between November 2015 and September 2016. For the first time in wildlife, a novel magnetic capture DNA extraction and real-time PCR technique was used to isolate and detect T. gondii DNA from the heart and brain of foxes. A double separatory funnel digestion method followed by multiplex PCR was used to recover and genotype larvae of Trichinella spp. from tongues of foxes. Seroprevalence based on detection of antibodies to T. gondii was 41% (95% CI: 27-57%) using a commercially available modified agglutination test (MAT). Detection of DNA of T. gondii and larvae of Trichinella nativa (T2) occurred in 44% (95% CI: 28-60%) and 36% (95% CI: 21-51%) of foxes, respectively. Coinfection with both T. nativa and T. gondii occurred among 23% (95%CI: 13-38%) of foxes which can be attributed to co-transmission from prey and scavenged species in their diet. There was only moderate agreement between T. gondii serology and direct detection of T. gondii DNA using the MC-PCR technique (Kappa test statistic: 0.321), suggesting that using both methods in tandem can increase the sensitivity of detection for this parasite. These findings show that foxes are good sentinels for circulation of parasitic zoonoses in terrestrial northern ecosystems since they are highly exposed, show measurable indicators of infection and do not serve as exposure sources for humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bachand Nicholas
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7H 5B4, Canada
| | - A. Ravel
- Groupe de recherche en épidémiologie des zoonoses et santé publique, Département de pathologie et microbiologie, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, J2S 2M2, Canada
| | - P. Leighton
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - C. Stephen
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7H 5B4, Canada
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - A. Iqbal
- National Reference Centre for Parasitology, J.D. MacLean Tropical Diseases Centre, McGill University, Montréal, H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - M. Ndao
- National Reference Centre for Parasitology, J.D. MacLean Tropical Diseases Centre, McGill University, Montréal, H4A 3J1, Canada
| | - K. Konecsni
- Centre for Foodborne and Animal Parasitology, Canadian Food Inspection Agency Saskatoon Laboratory, 116 Veterinary Rd., Saskatoon, S7N 2R3, Canada
| | - C. Fernando
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7H 5B4, Canada
| | - E. Jenkins
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, S7H 5B4, Canada
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The epidemiology of trichinellosis in the Arctic territories of a Far Eastern District of the Russian Federation. J Helminthol 2018; 93:42-49. [PMID: 29382411 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x18000020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Trichinellosis, a zoonotic disease caused by nematodes of the genus Trichinella, is still a public health concern in the Arctic. The aims of this study were to investigate the seroprevalence of anti-Trichinella IgG in aboriginal peoples of two settlements in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug (Russian Federation) on the Arctic coast of the Bering Sea, and to evaluate the survival of Trichinella nativa larvae in local fermented and frozen meat products. A seroprevalence of 24.3% was detected in 259 people tested by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The highest prevalence was detected among people who consumed traditional local foods made from the meat of marine mammals. Trichinella nativa larvae were found to survive for up to 24 months in a fermented and frozen marine mammal meat product called kopalkhen. Since the T. nativa life cycle can be completed in the absence of humans, it can be expected to persist in the environment and therefore remain a cause of morbidity in the human populations living in Arctic regions.
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Abstract
AbstractIn this review, we identified 63 cases reported since World War II of human trichinellosis linked to the consumption of parasitized polar bear (Ursus maritimus) meat. This low number contrasts to the numerous cases of human trichinellosis related to consumption of the meat of black (U. americanus) or brown bears (U. arctos). The prevalence of Trichinella infection is high in bears, but larval muscular burden is usually lower in polar bears compared to other bear species. Polar bears, therefore, seem to play a limited role in the transmission of trichinellosis to humans, as native residents living in the Arctic traditionally consume well-cooked bear meat, and travellers and foreign hunters have only limited access to this protected species due to the declining polar bear population.
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Fariña F, Pasqualetti M, Ilgová J, Cardillo N, Ercole M, Aronowicz T, Krivokapich S, Kašný M, Ribicich M. Evaluation of the infectivity and the persistence of Trichinella patagoniensis in muscle tissue of decomposing guinea pig (Cavia porcellus). Parasitol Res 2016; 116:371-375. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-5299-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 10/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Tryland M, Nesbakken T, Robertson L, Grahek-Ogden D, Lunestad BT. Human pathogens in marine mammal meat – a northern perspective. Zoonoses Public Health 2015; 61:377-94. [PMID: 24344685 DOI: 10.1111/zph.12080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Only a few countries worldwide hunt seals and whales commercially. In Norway, hooded and harp seals and minke whales are commercially harvested, and coastal seals (harbour and grey seals) are hunted as game. Marine mammal meat is sold to the public and thus included in general microbiological meat control regulations. Slaughtering and dressing of marine mammals are performed in the open air on deck, and many factors on board sealing or whaling vessels may affect meat quality, such as the ice used for cooling whale meat and the seawater used for cleaning, storage of whale meat in the open air until ambient temperature is reached, and the hygienic conditions of equipment, decks, and other surfaces. Based on existing reports, it appears that meat of seal and whale does not usually represent a microbiological hazard to consumers in Norway, because human disease has not been associated with consumption of such foods. However, as hygienic control on marine mammal meat is ad hoc, mainly based on spot-testing, and addresses very few human pathogens, this conclusion may be premature. Additionally, few data from surveys or systematic quality control screenings have been published. This review examines the occurrence of potential human pathogens in marine mammals, as well as critical points for contamination of meat during the slaughter, dressing, cooling, storage and processing of meat. Some zoonotic agents are of particular relevance as foodborne pathogens, such as Trichinella spp., Toxoplasma gondii, Salmonella and Leptospira spp. In addition, Mycoplasma spp. parapoxvirus and Mycobacterium spp. constitute occupational risks during handling of marine mammals and marine mammal products. Adequate training in hygienic procedures is necessary to minimize the risk of contamination on board, and acquiring further data is essential for obtaining a realistic assessment of the microbiological risk to humans from consuming marine mammal meat.
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Helminths in Meat. Food Microbiol 2014. [DOI: 10.1128/9781555818463.ch26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Seymour J, Horstmann-Dehn L, Rosa C, Lopez J. Occurrence and genotypic analysis of Trichinella species in Alaska marine-associated mammals of the Bering and Chukchi seas. Vet Parasitol 2014; 200:153-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2013] [Revised: 11/13/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Larrat S, Simard M, Lair S, Bélanger D, Proulx JF. From science to action and from action to science: the Nunavik Trichinellosis Prevention Program. Int J Circumpolar Health 2012; 71:18595. [PMID: 22789519 PMCID: PMC3417525 DOI: 10.3402/ijch.v71i0.18595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2011] [Revised: 03/07/2012] [Accepted: 03/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives During the 1980s, walrus-meat consumption caused infections with the parasite Trichinella nativa in Nunavik inhabitants. In response to these events, stakeholders set up the community-based Nunavik Trichinellosis Prevention Program (NTPP). The objectives of the present communication are to review the NTPP, describe how science and action were interwoven in its development and identify its assets and limitations. Study design Descriptive study. Methods The NTPP relies on a pooled digestion assay of tongue samples taken from each harvested walrus. The public health recommendations depend on the results of the analyses: infected walrus meat should be destroyed; parasite-free meat may be eaten raw or cooked. Results All communities involved in the walrus hunt participate in the NTPP and a high percentage of harvested walruses are included in the NTPP. Infected animals account for 2.9% of the walruses tested (20/694) since 1992. The NTPP permitted the early management of a trichinellosis event in 1997. Since then, it prevented the new occurrence of outbreaks related to walruses hunted by Nunavimmiut. Conclusions The absence of recent major outbreaks of trichinellosis in Nunavik may reasonably be attributed to the NTPP. The success of the program stands on many facilitating factors such as the nature of the disease and its source, the existence of an efficient analytic method, the strong involvement of the different partners including direct resource users, as well as the comprehensive bidirectional science-to-action approach that has been followed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylvain Larrat
- Centre Québécois sur la Santé des Animaux Sauvages/Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Center, Saint-Hyacinthe Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Montréal, St-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
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Pardhan-Ali A, Wilson J, Edge VL, Furgal C, Reid-Smith R, Santos M, McEwen SA. A descriptive analysis of notifiable gastrointestinal illness in the Northwest Territories, Canada, 1991-2008. BMJ Open 2012; 2:e000732. [PMID: 22761280 PMCID: PMC3391378 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2011-000732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2012] [Accepted: 05/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To describe the major characteristics of reported notifiable gastrointestinal illness (NGI) data in the Northwest Territories (NWT) from January 1991 through December 2008. DESIGN Descriptive analysis of 708 reported cases of NGI extracted from the Northwest Territories Communicable Disease Registry (NWT CDR). SETTING Primary, secondary and tertiary health care centres across all 33 communities of the NWT. POPULATION NWT residents of all ages with confirmed NGI reported to the NWT CDR from January 1991 through December 2008. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Laboratory-confirmed NGI, with a particular emphasis on campylobacteriosis, giardiasis and salmonellosis. RESULTS Campylobacteriosis, giardiasis and salmonellosis were the most commonly identified types of NGI in the territory. Seasonal peaks for all three diseases were observed in late summer to autumn (p<0.01). Higher rates of NGI (all 15 diseases/infections) were found in the 0-9-year age group and in men (p<0.01). Similarly, rates of giardiasis were higher in the 0-9-year age group and in men (p<0.02). A disproportionate burden of salmonellosis was found in people aged 60 years and older and in women (p<0.02). Although not significant, the incidence of campylobacteriosis was greater in the 20-29-years age group and in men (p<0.07). The health authority with the highest incidence of NGI was Yellowknife (p<0.01), while for salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis, it was Tlicho (p<0.01) and for giardiasis, the Sahtu region (p<0.01). Overall, disease rates were higher in urban areas (p<0.01). Contaminated eggs, poultry and untreated water were believed by health practitioners to be important sources of infection in cases of salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis and giardiasis, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The general patterns of these findings suggest that environmental and behavioural risk factors played key roles in infection. Further research into potential individual and community-level risk factors is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aliya Pardhan-Ali
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jeff Wilson
- Novometrix Research Inc., Moffat, Ontario, Canada
| | - Victoria L Edge
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Chris Furgal
- Department of Indigenous Environmental Studies, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Richard Reid-Smith
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Maria Santos
- Department of Health and Social Services, Government of the Northwest Territories, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada
| | - Scott A McEwen
- Department of Population Medicine, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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Austin JW, Leclair D. Botulism in the North: A Disease Without Borders. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52:593-4. [DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciq256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- John W. Austin
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Health Products and Food Branch, Health Canada
| | - Daniel Leclair
- Food Safety Division, Food Safety and Consumer Protection Directorate, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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Yang Y, Jian W, Qin W. Molecular cloning and phylogenetic analysis of small GTPase protein Tscdc42 from Trichinella spiralis. Parasitol Res 2010; 106:801-8. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-010-1735-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2009] [Accepted: 01/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Pozio E, Zarlenga DS. Recent advances on the taxonomy, systematics and epidemiology of Trichinella. Int J Parasitol 2006; 35:1191-204. [PMID: 16153648 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2005] [Revised: 06/22/2005] [Accepted: 07/15/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Since Owen first described Trichinella as a human pathogen in 1835, the number of organisms comprising this genus has grown dramatically. Where it was once thought to be a monospecific group, this genus is now comprised of eight species and three additional genotypic variants that have yet to be taxonomically defined. Along with the growth in the genus and description of the parasites has come a concomitant increase in our understanding of the epidemiology and geographical distribution of these organisms. Recent expansion of the non-encapsulated group to include three species biologically defined by their unique host ranges encompassing mammals, birds and reptiles, has raised substantial questions as to the term, 'Trichinella-free' as it applies to geographical localities. A true appreciation of the adaptability of this genus to host and environmental selection factors, as well as its dissemination to the far reaches of the world can best be appreciated by reviewing what we know and what we hope to know about this ancient and elusive parasite. The review herein consolidates our current understanding of the taxonomy, epidemiology, and phylogeny of the genus Trichinella, and identifies areas where data are lacking and our knowledge requires additional clarification.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Pozio
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immunomediated Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy.
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