Endoscopic Management of Refractory Benign Esophageal Strictures

The Endoscopic Management of Anastomotic Strictures After Esophagogastric Surgery: A Comprehensive Review of Emerging Approaches Beyond Endoscopic Dilation

Anastomotic strictures are a common complication following esophagogastric surgery, with prevalence varying depending on the type of surgery and anatomical site. These strictures can lead to debilitating symptoms such as dysphagia, pain, and malabsorption, significantly impacting patients' quality of life. Endoscopic treatment of anastomotic strictures has established a role as the first-line strategy in this setting instead of revision surgery, offering benefits in terms of lower morbidity. Various endoscopic methods are available for anastomotic stricture management, including balloon dilation, stent placement, the new lumen-apposing metal stent, and endoscopic incision techniques. However, there is currently no strong evidence and established guidelines for the optimal treatment strategy. Available data suggest that endoscopic treatments, when performed in tertiary referral centers, can provide favorable outcomes in terms of symptom relief and reduced need for rescue surgical intervention. Nonetheless, challenges remain regarding the management of recurrent strictures and procedural complications, underscoring the need for a personalized, multidisciplinary approach to optimize clinical outcomes. This review aims to provide an updated overview of endoscopic techniques and available evidence with a focus on the most recent technologies, supporting clinicians in effectively managing anastomotic strictures in complex clinical settings.

Utility of modified endoscopic radial incision and selective cutting combined with short-term stenting for refractory stricture in patients undergoing endoscopic submucosal dissection of superficial esophageal carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Refractory esophageal stricture is the common complication of extensive endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD), without satisfactory endoscopic treatment strategies. We evaluated the efficacy, safety, and long-term patency of the modified endoscopic radial incision and selective cutting combined with short-term stenting (RISC-STS) for the treatment of refractory esophageal stenosis.

METHODS

This was a retrospective study. Patients diagnosed with refractory esophageal stricture from June 2016 to June 2023 were enrolled. Efficacy, safety, and risk factors for dysphagia after RISC-STS operation were assessed.

RESULTS

Compared with clinical symptoms before RISC-STS, there was no significant improvement in the times of stricture recurred (p = 0.75). However, the narrowest diameter of esophageal stenosis was significantly larger after RISC-STS treatment (p = 0.04). Corresponding dysphagia scores after RISC-STS were obviously lowered according to the Mellow-Pinkas grading scale (p = 0.002). More cases ((14 (60.87%) vs 5 (21.74%)) received valid symptom-relief periods after RISC-STS (p = 0.0004). The complications of RISC-STS include perforation (4.35%), fever (4.35%), and pain (30.43%). Univariate Cox analysis suggested that resection length >7 cm of scar tissue was a risk factor for refractory dysphagia after RISC-STS.

CONCLUSION

The present study revealed that RISC-STS is an effective and safe technique for refractory esophageal stricture with lower restenosis, higher valid symptom-relief rate, and fewer complications.

Surgical Nonresponders in Zenker Diverticulum and Lower Esophageal Pathology (POUCH Collaborative)

OBJECTIVE

To identify characteristics of patients who have poor improvement in symptoms following surgical management of Zenker Diverticulum (ZD).

METHODS

Prospective, multicenter cohort study of all individuals enrolled in the Prospective OUtcomes of Cricopharyngeus Hypertonicity (POUCH) Collaborative who underwent surgical repair of ZD between August 2017 and January 2024. Patient demographics, esophagrams, and the 10-item Eating Assessment Tool (EAT-10) pre- and post-procedure were obtained from a REDCap database. t-tests, Wilcoxon rank sum tests, Chi-square or Fisher's exact tests were used to compare the characteristics. Patients with <50% improvement in their EAT-10 scores were deemed surgical nonresponders (SNRs). Those with ≥50% improvement in their EAT-10 scores were deemed surgical responders (SRs).

RESULTS

A total of 184 patients were prospectively followed after undergoing either open or endoscopic surgical management. Twenty-two patients (12%) were deemed SNRs. Preoperative presence of a hiatal hernia was statistically significant characteristic between the SNRs (63.6%) and SRs (32.1%) (p = 0.004). Size of the ZD and history of previous ZD surgery was not a significant characteristic. The length of stay and complication rate were not statistically different between the groups.

CONCLUSION

Coexistent esophageal pathology may lead to poor symptomatic improvement following ZD surgery. Preoperative workup of other esophageal disorders is recommended to detect likely SNRs. For SNRs, further esophageal workup may be necessary to evaluate for other esophageal causes related to poor symptomatic improvement following ZD surgery.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

3 Laryngoscope, 134:4897-4902, 2024.

Efficacy and safety of radial incision and cutting for nonsurgical refractory benign esophageal stricture

Background and study aims Radial incision and cutting (RIC) was established to improve refractory esophageal anastomotic strictures but its efficacy and safety for nonsurgical refractory strictures remain unclear. To evaluate the usefulness of RIC in nonsurgical refractory strictures, we retrospectively compared outcomes between nonsurgical and surgical strictures. Patients and methods We retrospectively studied 54 consecutive patients who were initially treated with RIC for refractory benign esophageal stricture. The study variables included dysphasia score improvement rate, frequency of repeated RIC, cumulative patency rate, cumulative stricture improved rate, and adverse events(AEs), which were compared between nonsurgical (n = 21) and surgical (n = 33) stricture groups. Results Immediately after RIC, 90.5% of patients in the nonsurgical group and 84.8% of patients in the surgical group had improvement in dysphagia ( P = 0.69). The frequency of intervening repeated RIC was 42.9% in the nonsurgical group and 42.4% in the surgical group ( P = 0.98). During median follow-up of 22.3 months (range, 1.0-175.0), the cumulative patency rate ( P = 0.23) and cumulative stricture improvement rate ( P = 0.14) but there was not statistical difference between the two groups. Despite a low cumulative stricture improvement rate (9.5%) at 6 months after the first RIC in the nonsurgical group, 57.7% of patients no longer required endoscopic balloon dilatation at 2 years. The cumulative stricture improvement rate was significantly lower in patients with a history of radiation therapy. No severe AEs were observed in the nonsurgical group. Conclusions RIC for nonsurgical refractory benign esophageal stricture is an effective and safe treatment option.

Endoscopic incisional therapy for benign anastomotic strictures after esophagectomy or gastrectomy: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Studies have evaluated the efficacy of endoscopic incisional therapy (EIT) for benign anastomotic strictures. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate stricture recurrence after EIT following esophagectomy or gastrectomy.

METHODS

A systematic search of databases was performed up to April 2nd, 2023, after selection of key search terms with the research team. Inclusion criteria included human participants undergoing EIT for a benign anastomotic stricture after esophagectomy or gastrectomy, age ≥ 18, and n ≥ 5. Our primary outcome was the incidence of stricture recurrence among patients treated with EIT compared to dilation. Our secondary outcome was the stricture-free duration after EIT and rate of adverse events. Meta-analysis was performed with RevMan 5.4.1 using a Mantel-Haenszel random-effects model. Publication bias was evaluated with funnel plots and the Egger test.

RESULTS

A total of 2550 unique preliminary studies underwent screening of abstracts and titles. This led to 33 studies which underwent full-text review and five studies met the inclusion criteria. Meta-analysis revealed reduced odds of overall stricture recurrence (OR 0.35, 95% CI 0.13-0.92, p = 0.03; I2 = 71%) and reduced odds of stricture recurrence among naïve strictures (OR 0.32, 95% CI 0.17-0.59, p = 0.0003; I2 = 0%) for patients undergoing EIT compared to dilation. There was no significant difference in the odds of stricture recurrence among recurrent strictures (OR 0.63, 95% CI 0.12-3.28, p = 0.58; I2 = 81%). Meta-analysis revealed a significant increase in the recurrence-free duration (MD 42.76, 95% CI 12.41-73.11, p = 0.006) among patients undergoing EIT compared to dilation.

CONCLUSION

Current data suggest EIT is associated with reduced odds of stricture recurrence among naïve anastomotic strictures. Large, prospective studies are needed to characterize the safety profile of EIT, address publication bias, and to explore multimodal therapies for refractory strictures.

A Novel Deformable Self-Assembled Magnetic Anastomosis Ring (DSAMAR) for Esophageal Stenosis Recanalization without Temporary Gastrostomy in Beagle Dogs

BACKGROUND

To assess the feasibility of a deformable self-assembled magnetic anastomosis ring (DSAMAR) in the treatment of esophageal stenosis in beagle dogs via transoral access without temporary gastrostomy.

METHODS

Experimental esophageal stenosis was created in 10 beagle dogs by partial cervical esophageal ligation. The DSAMAR was inserted into the distal esophagus via the narrow section of the esophagus using a gastroscope. A circular DSAMAR was placed in the proximal esophagus. The magnetic rings on both sides of the experimental stenosis automatically attracted each other. We then recorded the operation time, postoperative complications, anastomotic formation time, and magnetic ring discharge time. The dogs were euthanized 4 weeks postoperatively; subsequently, we obtained the esophageal anastomotic specimens and observed the anastomotic formation via the naked eye and by light microscopy.

RESULTS

Our esophageal stenosis model produced reproducible stenoses in all dogs, which was confirmed via endoscopy and esophagography. DSAMAR was successfully implanted in all experimental animals under endoscopic and X-ray monitoring, and all linear DSAMARs were successfully transformed into rings. The magnets at both ends of the esophageal stenosis were automatically attracted. All animals survived until euthanasia. No complications, including esophageal perforation, bleeding, and gastrointestinal obstruction, were noted during the perioperative period. The mean operation time of endoscopic magnetic anastomosis was 15.6 ± 2.41 (range, 12-19) min. The mean esophageal anastomotic formation time was 8.8 ± 1.03 (range, 7-10) days, and the mean expulsion time of DSAMAR was 13.94 ± 2.88 (range, 10-19) days. Gastroscopy and esophagography were performed at 4 weeks postoperatively; the esophageal patency was good. Macroscopic observation of the esophageal anastomotic specimens revealed that the esophageal mucosal layer of the anastomosis had good continuity and the anastomosis was smooth.

CONCLUSION

DSAMAR is a feasible option for magnetic recanalization of esophageal stricture via transoral access without temporary gastrostomy.

Robot-assisted oesophagectomy (Ivor-Lewis) for a complex stenosis previously managed by open gastrostomy tube placement

A man in his late 50s presented with severe dysphagia caused by a complex refractory benign stenosis that was completely obstructing the middle oesophagus. The patient was unsatisfied with the gastrostomy tube placed via laparotomy as a long-term solution. Therefore, we performed robot-assisted minimally invasive oesophagectomy (video). Mobilisation of the stomach and gastric conduit preparation were more difficult due to the previously inserted gastrostomy tube; thus, the conduit blood supply was assessed using indocyanine green fluorescence. After an uncomplicated course, the patient was referred directly to inpatient rehabilitation on the 16th postoperative day. At 9 months after surgery, the motivated patient returned to full-time work and achieved level 7 on the functional oral intake scale (total oral diet, with no restrictions). At the 1-year follow-up, he positively confirmed all nine key elements of a good quality of life after oesophagectomy.

A novel self-inflatable balloon for treating refractory benign esophageal strictures: a prospective, single-arm, multicenter study

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Current treatments for refractory benign esophageal strictures (BESs) often take several years and have poor effects. The authors propose a novel method of self-help inflatable balloon (SHIB) and evaluate its efficacy and safety.

METHODS

A prospective, multicenter study was conducted from January 2019 to March 2022. All enrolled patients were diagnosed with refractory BESs and received SHIB. The primary endpoint was the clinical success rate at 12 months after removing SHIB. The secondary endpoints were the number of days of placing SHIB, and changes from baseline in BMI and health-related quality of life at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months.

RESULTS

The clinical success rate was 51.2% (21/41) with the median days of placing SHIB being 104.0 days (range: 62.0-134.5 days), which was higher in the endoscopic group compared to the caustic and surgery groups (63.3 vs. 28.6% vs. 0, P=0.025). All patients (100%) showed significant improvement in dysphagia scores during placing SHIB. Although 20 patients (48.8%) experienced recurrent stricture, the median stricture length was decreased (P<0.001) and the median intervention-free interval was prolonged (P<0.001). In all patients, the mean BMI at and health-related quality of life at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months were significantly increased compared with baseline (P<0.05). On multivariate analysis, stricture etiology and wearing time were independent predictors of recurrent stricture.

CONCLUSIONS

The SHIB has high efficacy and safety in treating refractory BESs of different origins, especially for endoscopic resection. Stricture etiology and wearing time were independent predictors of recurrent stricture.

Sporadic gastrinoma with refractory benign esophageal stricture: A case report

BACKGROUND

Gastrinoma is characterized by an excessive release of gastrin, leading to hypersecretion of gastric acid, subsequently resulting in recurrent peptic ulcers, chronic diarrhea, and even esophageal strictures. This case report aims to improve awareness and facilitate early diagnosis and treatment of gastrinoma by presenting a rare case of gastrinoma with refractory benign esophageal stricture (RBES). Additionally, it highlights the persistent challenges that gastroenterologists encounter in managing RBES.

CASE SUMMARY

This case demonstrates a patient with gastrinoma who developed RBES and complete esophageal obstruction despite management with maximal acid suppressive therapy, multiple endoscopic bougie dilations and endoscopic incisional therapy (EIT).

CONCLUSION

It is essential to diagnose gastrinoma as early as possible, as inadequately controlled acid secretion over an extended period increases the risk of developing severe esophageal strictures. In patients with esophageal strictures causing complete luminal obstruction, blind reopening EIT presents challenges and carries a high risk of perforation.

The endoscopic management of oesophageal strictures

An oesophageal stricture refers to a narrowing of the oesophageal lumen, which may be benign or malignant. The cardinal feature is dysphagia, and this may result from intrinsic oesophageal disease or extrinsic compression. Oesophageal strictures can be further classified as simple or complex depending on stricture length, location, diameter, and underlying aetiology. Many endoscopic options are now available for treating oesophageal strictures including dilatation, injectional therapy, stenting, stricturotomy, and ablation. Self-expanding metal stents have revolutionised the palliation of malignant dysphagia, but oesophageal dilatation with balloon or bougienage remains first-line therapy for most benign strictures. The increase in endoscopic and surgical interventions on the oesophagus has seen more benign refractory oesophageal strictures that are difficult to treat, and often require advanced endoscopic techniques. In this review, we provide a practical overview on the evidence-based management of both benign and malignant oesophageal strictures, including a practical algorithm for managing benign refractory strictures.

[Endoscopic ultrasonography features of benign esophageal stenosis in children]

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) features of benign esophageal stenosis in children.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was conducted on the medical data of the children who were diagnosed with benign esophageal stenosis from February 2019 to February 2022. The clinical manifestations, EUS findings, and treatment outcome were analyzed to summarize the EUS features of benign esophageal stenosis in children.

RESULTS

A total of 42 children with benign esophageal stenosis were included. Among these children, 19 (45%) had anastomotic stenosis after surgery for esophageal atresia, with unclear echogenic boundary of the esophageal walls and uneven thicknesses of the surrounding wall on EUS, and had 0-12 sessions of endoscopic treatment (average 2.1 sessions); 5 children (12%) had corrosive esophageal stenosis and 1 child (2%) had physical esophageal stenosis, with unclear stratification of the esophageal walls on EUS, and they had 2-9 sessions of endoscopic treatment (average 5.3 sessions); 1 child (2%) had patchy irregular hypoechoic areas of the esophageal walls on EUS and was diagnosed with tracheobronchial remnants with reference to pathology; 16 children (38%) had unexplained esophageal stenosis and unclear stratification of the esophageal walls on EUS, among whom 6 received endoscopic treatment. During follow-up, 95% (40/42) of the children had significant alleviation of the symptoms such as vomiting and dysphagia.

CONCLUSIONS

For benign esophageal stenosis in children, EUS can help to evaluate the degree of esophageal wall involvement in esophageal stenosis lesions, possible etiologies, and the relationship between the esophagus and the lesion and provide an important basis for selecting treatment modality and avoiding complications, thereby helping to optimize the treatment regimen.

The Efficacy and Safety of Treatment Outcomes for Refractory Benign Esophageal Strictures Using a Novel Combination of Needle-Knife Stricturoplasty, Balloon Dilation, and Steroid Injection (with Video)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Benign esophageal strictures often present with dysphagia and can significantly impair a patient's quality of life, especially when refractory to standard endoscopic techniques. When repeat dilations fail to achieve an adequate luminal diameter or resolve dysphagia, further therapy with needle-knife or steroid injections is needed. However, patients can still clinically fail. To manage such strictures, we employed a novel combination of all three techniques.

METHODS

Single-center case series of adult patients with benign strictures that were refractory to conventional endoscopic therapy and removable self-expanding metal stenting. Primary clinical success was defined as complete resolution in dysphagia. Secondary outcomes included periodic dilation index (frequency of dilations over the follow-up time), esophageal diameter changes, technical success, and complications.

RESULTS

Four patients (median age 49.7 years old, interquartile range [IQR] 30-59) underwent endoscopic therapy for complex, benign strictures using our triple therapy technique. Etiologies of the strictures included peptic strictures (n = 3) and an anastomotic stricture (n = 1). There was 100% technical success rate with no associated adverse events. There was a 50% clinical success rate, with 1 additional patient having partial improvement in dysphagia. The median diameter of the esophagus before and after triple therapy was 3.2 mm (IQR 3.5-5.5) and 12.8 mm (IQR 11.7-14.2), respectively. The periodic dilation index was 6.3 before and 1.5 after triple therapy. The median length of follow-up was 362.5 days.

CONCLUSION

Triple combination therapy may be useful in benign strictures that are refractory to standard techniques. Larger studies are needed to validate these findings.

Acute esophageal stricture after bone marrow transplant

Esophageal stricture after bone marrow transplantation (BMT) is exceptionally rare, with only a few cases reported in the literature. We present an interesting case of a 58-year-old male with refractory multiple myeloma who developed dysphagia five days following his second bone marrow transplantation. He was found to have a severe esophageal stricture. The patient was treated with multiple esophageal dilations and triamcinolone injections in the following weeks to months, resulting in an improvement in symptoms. Although the exact underlying mechanism remains unknown, high-dose chemotherapy conditioning with melphalan prior to BMT likely contributed to the stricture. Our case highlights the importance of heightened post-bone marrow transplantation management for rare complications, such as an esophageal stricture.

[Clinical analysis of endoscopic esophageal dilation for the treatment of corrosive esophageal strictures in children]

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the clinical application of endoscopic esophageal dilation in the treatment of corrosive esophageal strictures in children.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was performed on the clinical data of 15 children with corrosive esophageal strictures who underwent endoscopic esophageal dilation in Children's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine. The clinical features, treatment modality of endoscopic esophageal dilation, number of dilations, complications, and prognosis were reviewed.

RESULTS

A total of 96 esophageal dilations were performed in the 15 children with corrosive esophageal strictures, with a median of 6 dilations per child. Among them, 9 children (60%) underwent 6 or more dilations. The children with a stricture length of >3 cm had a significantly higher number of dilations than those with a stricture length of ≤3 cm (P<0.05). The children with strictures in a single segment had a significantly better treatment outcome than those with strictures in multiple segments (P=0.005). No complication was observed during all sessions of dilation. The overall effective rate (including significant improvement and improvement) of endoscopic esophageal dilation treatment was 87%, with 2 cases of failure.

CONCLUSIONS

Endoscopic esophageal dilation is an effective and relatively safe treatment method for corrosive esophageal strictures in children, and children with strictures in a single segment tend to have a better treatment outcome than those with strictures in multiple segments.

Efficacy of a patient with scar constitution combined with corrosive esophageal strictures after different endoscopic therapies

Oral corrosive substances can cause esophageal or gastrointestinal strictures, leading to malnutrition and gastrointestinal dysfunction, directly affecting the patients' quality of life. The aim of the case was to compare the efficacy of different endoscopic therapy methods.

Comparison between ESD and RFA in patients with total or near-total circumferential early esophageal squamous cell neoplasia

BACKGROUND

Patients with early esophageal squamous cell neoplasias (ESCNs) that are totally or nearly totally circumferential face challenges in their clinical work. Endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) frequently leads to esophageal strictures. Endoscopic radiofrequency ablation (RFA), which stands out for its simplicity of use and low rate of stenosis, is a rapidly evolving therapeutic strategy for early ESCNs. We contrast ESD with RFA in order to find which method is best for the treatment of a wide range of esophageal diseases.

METHODS

Patients who had flat-type, early, large ESCNs (extending more than 3/4 of the esophageal circumference) treated endoscopically were enrolled retrospectively. The primary outcome measurements were adverse events and local control of the neoplastic lesion.

RESULTS

A total of 105 patients received treatment; 60 had ESD and 45 received RFA. Despite the patients receiving RFA typically having larger tumors (14.27 vs. 5.70 cm, P < 0.05), the local control of the neoplastic lesion and procedure-related complications were comparable between the ESD and RFA groups. A considerably higher risk of esophageal stenosis was observed in patients with extensive lesions in the ESD group compared to the RFA group (60% vs. 31%; P < 0.05), and the rate of refractory stricture is also higher than that of the RFA.

CONCLUSION

Both RFA and ESD are effective in treating large, flat, early ESCNs; however, ESD is more likely to cause side effects, such as esophageal stricture, particularly in lesions that are larger than 3/4 of the diameter. Before RFA, a more precise and thorough pretreatment examination should be performed. A more accurate pretreatment evaluation will be an important development direction for early esophageal cancer in future. After surgery, a strict routine review is crucial.

Endoscopic radial incision versus endoscopic balloon dilation as initial treatments of benign esophageal anastomotic stricture

BACKGROUND AND AIM

We aim to evaluate the efficacy and safety of endoscopic radial incision (ERI) versus endoscopic balloon dilation (EBD) treatment of naïve, recurrent, and refractory benign esophageal anastomotic strictures.

METHODS

One hundred and one ERI, 145 EBD, and 42 ERI combined with EBD sessions were performed in 136 consecutive patients with benign esophageal anastomotic stricture after esophagectomy at Zhongshan Hospital from January 2016 to August 2021. Baseline characteristics, operational procedures, and clinical outcomes data were retrospectively evaluated. Parameters and recurrence-free survival (RFS) were compared between ERI and EBD in patients with naïve or recurrent or refractory strictures. Risk factors for re-stricture after ERI were identified using univariate and multivariate analyses.

RESULTS

Twenty-nine ERI versus 68 EBD sessions were performed for naïve stricture, 26 ERI versus 60 EBD for recurrent strictures, and 46 ERI versus 17 EBD for refractory stricture. With comparable baseline characteristics, RFS was greater in the ERI than the EBD group for naïve strictures (P = 0.0449). The ERI group had a lower 12-month re-stricture rate than the EBD group (37.9% vs 61.8%, P = 0.0309) and a more prolonged patency time (181.5 ± 263.1 vs 74.5 ± 82.0, P = 0.0233). Between the two interventions, recurrent and refractory strictures had similar RFS (P = 0.0598; P = 0.7668). Multivariate analysis revealed initial ERI treatment was an independent predictive factor for lower re-stricture risk after ERI intervention (odds ratio = 0.047, P = 0.001). Few adverse events were observed after ERI or EBD (3.0% vs 2.1%, P = 0.6918).

CONCLUSIONS

ERI is associated with lower re-stricture rates with better patency and RFS compared with EBD for naive strictures.

Esophageal lichen planus: Current knowledge, challenges and future perspectives

Lichen planus (LP) is a frequent, chronic inflammatory disease involving the skin, mucous membranes and/or skin appendages. Esophageal involvement in lichen planus (ELP) is a clinically important albeit underdiagnosed inflammatory condition. This narrative review aims to give an overview of the current knowledge on ELP, its prevalence, pathogenesis, clinical manifestation, diagnostic criteria, and therapeutic options in order to provide support in clinical management. Studies on ELP were collected using PubMed/Medline. Relevant clinical and therapeutical characteristics from published patient cohorts including our own cohort were extracted and summarized. ELP mainly affects middle-aged women. The principal symptom is dysphagia. However, asymptomatic cases despite progressed macroscopic esophageal lesions may occur. The pathogenesis is unknown, however an immune-mediated mechanism is probable. Endoscopically, ELP is characterized by mucosal denudation and tearing, trachealization, and hyperkeratosis. Scarring esophageal stenosis may occur in chronic courses. Histologic findings include mucosal detachment, T-lymphocytic infiltrations, epithelial apoptosis (Civatte bodies), dyskeratosis, and hyperkeratosis. Direct immuno-fluorescence shows fibrinogen deposits along the basement membrane zone. To date, there is no established therapy. However, treatment with topical steroids induces symptomatic and histologic improvement in two thirds of ELP patients in general. More severe cases may require therapy with immunosuppressors. In symptomatic esophageal stenosis, endoscopic dilation may be necessary. ELP may be regarded as a precancerous condition as transition to squamous cell carcinoma has been documented in literature. ELP is an underdiagnosed yet clinically important differential diagnosis for patients with unclear dysphagia or esophagitis. Timely diagnosis and therapy might prevent potential sequelae such as esophageal stenosis or development of invasive squamous cell carcinoma. Further studies are needed to gain more knowledge about the pathogenesis and treatment options.

Percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy and jejunostomy: Indications and techniques

Nutritional support is essential in patients who have a limited capability to maintain their body weight. Therefore, oral feeding is the main approach for such patients. When physiological nutrition is not possible, positioning of a nasogastric, nasojejunal tube, or other percutaneous devices may be feasible alternatives. Creating a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) is a suitable option to be evaluated for patients that need nutritional support for more than 4 wk. Many diseases require nutritional support by PEG, with neurological, oncological, and catabolic diseases being the most common. PEG can be performed endoscopically by various techniques, radiologically or surgically, with different outcomes and related adverse events (AEs). Moreover, some patients that need a PEG placement are fragile and are unable to express their will or sign a written informed consent. These conditions highlight many ethical problems that become difficult to manage as treatment progresses. The aim of this manuscript is to review all current endoscopic techniques for percutaneous access, their indications, postprocedural follow-up, and AEs.

Futuristic Developments and Applications in Endoluminal Stenting

Endoscopic stenting is a well-established option for the treatment of malignant obstruction, temporary management of benign strictures, and sealing transmural defects, as well as drainage of pancreatic fluid collections and biliary obstruction. In recent years, in addition to expansion in indications for endoscopic stenting, considerable strides have been made in stent technology, and several types of devices with advanced designs and materials are continuously being developed. In this review, we discuss the important developments in stent designs and novel indications for endoluminal and transluminal stenting. Our discussion specifically focuses on (i) biodegradable as well as (ii) irradiating and drug-eluting stents for esophageal, gastroduodenal, biliary, and colonic indications, (iii) endoscopic stenting in inflammatory bowel disease, and (iv) lumen-apposing metal stent.