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Molecular Mechanisms in the Vascular and Nervous Systems following Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury. LIFE (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 13:life13010009. [PMID: 36675958 PMCID: PMC9866624 DOI: 10.3390/life13010009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) induces various complex pathological processes that cause physical impairment and psychological devastation. The two phases of SCI are primary mechanical damage (the immediate result of trauma) and secondary injury (which occurs over a period of minutes to weeks). After the mechanical impact, vascular disruption, inflammation, demyelination, neuronal cell death, and glial scar formation occur during the acute phase. This sequence of events impedes nerve regeneration. In the nervous system, various extracellular secretory factors such as neurotrophic factors, growth factors, and cytokines are involved in these events. In the vascular system, the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) is damaged, allowing immune cells to infiltrate the parenchyma. Later, endogenous angiogenesis is promoted during the subacute phase. In this review, we describe the roles of secretory factors in the nervous and vascular systems following traumatic SCI, and discuss the outcomes of their therapeutic application in traumatic SCI.
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Demirci H, Kuzucu P, Seymen CM, Gülbahar Ö, Özişik P, Emmez H. The effect of antiepileptic drugs on re-myelinization of axons: Phenytoin, levetiracetam, carbamazepine, and valproic acid, used following traumatic brain injury. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2021; 209:106911. [PMID: 34509750 DOI: 10.1016/j.clineuro.2021.106911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Traumatic brain injury is a major health and socioeconomic problem and the first cause of young death worldwide. For this reason, the prevention of post-traumatic brain injury and the research of new methods for it are important today. In this study, we aimed to determine whether the use of antiepileptic drugs contributed to axonal healing after traumatic brain injury. METHODS Thirty-six Long-Evans rats, each weighing 300-350 g, were used in this study. A total of 6 groups, including the sham, control, and 4 study groups, were determined. A 1.5 mm-sized trauma was created in the biparietal area with a blunt-tipped dissector. Carbamazepine phenytoin valproic acid and levetiracetam (phenytoin: 30 mg/kg, valproic acid: 60 mg/kg, levetiracetam: 80 mg/kg, and carbamazepine: 36 mg/kg) were intraperitoneally administered to the study groups, and the control group intraperitoneally received a physiological saline solution (15 ml/kg) twice daily for 3 days. After 72 h, hemispheres of the sacrificed subjects were taken for examination in biochemistry and histology. Glutathione, malondialdehyde, and NG2 levels in the samples were determined. RESULTS No significant difference was found in biochemical measurements. Histopathological examination revealed that the NG2 expression was more intense in the group treated with phenytoin and levetiracetam (phenytoin was partly higher) and the amount of edema decreased. The NG2 expression increased and the edema decreased, though lower in the group treated with carbamazepine and valproic acid, compared with phenytoin and levetiracetam. An increase in the NG2 expression and edema intensity were determined in the control and sham groups. CONCLUSION Antiepileptic drug selection after traumatic brain injury is an important medical matter. Although the patient-oriented selection is essential, the study suggests that the choice of phenytoin, levetiracetam carbamazepine, and valproic acid will, respectively, have an accelerating effect for axonal healing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harun Demirci
- Department of Neurosurgery,Ankara Yildirim Beyazit University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Pelin Kuzucu
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Health Sciences, Gülhane Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Cemile Merve Seymen
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Gazi University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Özlem Gülbahar
- Department of Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Gazi University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Pınar Özişik
- Department of Neurosurgery,Ankara Yildirim Beyazit University Faculty of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, Ankara, Turkey.
| | - Hakan Emmez
- Department of Neurosurgery, Gazi University Faculty of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey.
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Fan B, Wei Z, Yao X, Shi G, Cheng X, Zhou X, Zhou H, Ning G, Kong X, Feng S. Microenvironment Imbalance of Spinal Cord Injury. Cell Transplant 2018; 27:853-866. [PMID: 29871522 PMCID: PMC6050904 DOI: 10.1177/0963689718755778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 263] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI), for which there currently is no cure, is a heavy burden on
patient physiology and psychology. The microenvironment of the injured spinal cord is
complicated. According to our previous work and the advancements in SCI research,
‘microenvironment imbalance’ is the main cause of the poor regeneration and recovery of
SCI. Microenvironment imbalance is defined as an increase in inhibitory factors and
decrease in promoting factors for tissues, cells and molecules at different times and
spaces. There are imbalance of hemorrhage and ischemia, glial scar formation,
demyelination and re-myelination at the tissue’s level. The cellular level imbalance
involves an imbalance in the differentiation of endogenous stem cells and the
transformation phenotypes of microglia and macrophages. The molecular level includes an
imbalance of neurotrophic factors and their pro-peptides, cytokines, and chemokines. The
imbalanced microenvironment of the spinal cord impairs regeneration and functional
recovery. This review will aid in the understanding of the pathological processes involved
in and the development of comprehensive treatments for SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baoyou Fan
- 1 National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhijian Wei
- 1 National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Xue Yao
- 1 National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Guidong Shi
- 1 National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Xin Cheng
- 1 National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Xianhu Zhou
- 1 National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Hengxing Zhou
- 1 National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Guangzhi Ning
- 1 National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaohong Kong
- 2 Laboratory of Medical Molecular Virology, School of Medicine, Nankai University, Tianjin, China
| | - Shiqing Feng
- 1 National Spinal Cord Injury International Cooperation Base, Department of Orthopaedics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, China
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Onaolapo A, Adebayo A, Onaolapo O. Oral phenytoin protects against experimental cyclophosphamide-chemotherapy induced hair loss. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY 2018; 25:31-39. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pathophys.2017.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Revised: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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Guo Y, Ma Y, Pan YL, Zheng SY, Wang JW, Huang GC. Jisuikang, a Chinese herbal formula, increases neurotrophic factor expression and promotes the recovery of neurological function after spinal cord injury. Neural Regen Res 2017; 12:1519-1528. [PMID: 29089999 PMCID: PMC5649474 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.215264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The Chinese medicine compound, Jisuikang, can promote recovery of neurological function by inhibiting lipid peroxidation, scavenging oxygen free radicals, and effectively improving the local microenvironment after spinal cord injury. However, the mechanism remains unclear. Thus, we established a rat model of acute spinal cord injury using a modified version of Allen's method. Jisuikang (50, 25, and 12.5 g/kg/d) and prednisolone were administered 30 minutes after anesthesia. Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan locomotor scale scores and the oblique board test showed improved motor function recovery in the prednisone group and moderate-dose Jisuikang group compared with the other groups at 3-7 days post-injury. The rats in the moderate-dose Jisuikang group recovered best at 14 days post-injury. Hematoxylin-eosin staining and transmission electron microscopy showed that the survival rate of neurons in treatment groups increased after 3-7 days of administration. Further, the structure of neurons and glial cells was more distinct, especially in prednisolone and moderate-dose Jisuikang groups. Western blot assay and immunohistochemistry showed that expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in injured segments was maintained at a high level after 7-14 days of treatment. In contrast, expression of nerve growth factor (NGF) was down-regulated at 7 days after spinal cord injury. Real-time fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction showed that expression of BDNF and NGF mRNA was induced in injured segments by prednisolone and Jisuikang. At 3-7 days after injury, the effect of prednisolone was greater, while 14 days after injury, the effect of moderate-dose Jisuikang was greater. These results confirm that Jisuikang can upregulate BDNF and NGF expression for a prolonged period after spinal cord injury and promote repair of acute spinal cord injury, with its effect being similar to prednisolone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Guo
- Institute of Traumatology & Orthopedics and Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yong Ma
- Institute of Traumatology & Orthopedics and Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.,Department of Traumatology & Orthopedics, Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ya-Lan Pan
- Institute of Traumatology & Orthopedics and Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Su-Yang Zheng
- Institute of Traumatology & Orthopedics and Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jian-Wei Wang
- Department of Traumatology & Orthopedics, Wuxi Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Wuxi, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Gui-Cheng Huang
- Institute of Traumatology & Orthopedics and Laboratory of New Techniques of Restoration & Reconstruction of Orthopedics and Traumatology, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China
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Sodium channels contribute to degeneration of dorsal root ganglion neurites induced by mitochondrial dysfunction in an in vitro model of axonal injury. J Neurosci 2014; 33:19250-61. [PMID: 24305821 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2148-13.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Axonal degeneration occurs in multiple neurodegenerative disorders of the central and peripheral nervous system. Although the underlying molecular pathways leading to axonal degeneration are incompletely understood, accumulating evidence suggests contributions of impaired mitochondrial function, disrupted axonal transport, and/or dysfunctional intracellular Ca(2+)-homeostasis in the injurious cascade associated with axonal degeneration. Utilizing an in vitro model of axonal degeneration, we studied a subset of mouse peripheral sensory neurons in which neurites were exposed selectively to conditions associated with the pathogenesis of axonal neuropathies in vivo. Rotenone-induced mitochondrial dysfunction resulted in neurite degeneration accompanied by reduced ATP levels and increased ROS levels in neurites. Blockade of voltage-gated sodium channels with TTX and reverse (Ca(2+)-importing) mode of the sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX) with KB-R7943 partially protected rotenone-treated neurites from degeneration, suggesting a contribution of sodium channels and reverse NCX activity to the degeneration of neurites resulting from impaired mitochondrial function. Pharmacological inhibition of the Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase with ouabain induced neurite degeneration, which was attenuated by TTX and KB-R7943, supporting a contribution of sodium channels in axonal degenerative pathways accompanying impaired Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase activity. Conversely, oxidant stress (H2O2)-induced neurite degeneration was not attenuated by TTX. Our results demonstrate that both energetic and oxidative stress targeted selectively to neurites induces neurite degeneration and that blockade of sodium channels and of reverse NCX activity blockade partially protects neurites from injury due to energetic stress, but not from oxidative stress induced by H2O2.
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DiFazio J, Fletcher DJ. Updates in the management of the small animal patient with neurologic trauma. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2013; 43:915-40. [PMID: 23747266 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2013.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Neurologic trauma, encompassing traumatic brain injury (TBI) and acute spinal cord injury (SCI), is a cause of significant morbidity and mortality in veterinary patients. Acute SCIs occurring secondary to trauma are also common. Essential to the management of TBI and SCI is a thorough understanding of the pathophysiology of the primary and secondary injury that occurs following trauma. This article reviews the pathophysiology of this primary and secondary injury, as well as recommendations regarding clinical assessment, diagnostics, pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic therapy, and prognosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian DiFazio
- Section of Emergency and Critical Care, Cornell University Hospital for Animals, Upper Tower Road, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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Liu WM, Wu JY, Li FC, Chen QX. Ion channel blockers and spinal cord injury. J Neurosci Res 2011; 89:791-801. [PMID: 21394757 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.22602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2010] [Revised: 12/11/2010] [Accepted: 12/19/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The activation of a delayed secondary cascade of unsatisfactory cellular and molecular responses after a primary mechanical insult to the spinal cord causes the progressive degeneration of this structure. Disturbance of ionic homeostasis is part of the secondary injury process and plays an integral role in the early stage of spinal cord injury (SCI). The secondary pathology of SCI is complex and involves disturbance of the homeostasis of K(+) , Na(+) , and Ca(2+) . The effect of ion channel blockers on chronic SCI has also been proved. In this Mini-Review, we provide a comprehensive summary of the effects of ion channel blockers on the natural responses after SCI. Combination therapy is based on the roles of ions and disturbance of their homeostasis in SCI. The effects of ion channel blockers suggest that they have potential in the treatment of SCI, although the complexity of their effects shows that further knowledge is needed before they can be applied clinically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang-Mi Liu
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
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Sättler MB, Bähr M. Future neuroprotective strategies. Exp Neurol 2010; 225:40-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2009] [Revised: 08/18/2009] [Accepted: 08/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Attar A, Ayten M, Ozdemir M, Ozgencil E, Bozkurt M, Kaptanoglu E, Beksac M, Kanpolat Y. An attempt to treat patients who have injured spinal cords with intralesional implantation of concentrated autologous bone marrow cells. Cytotherapy 2010; 13:54-60. [PMID: 20735163 DOI: 10.3109/14653249.2010.510506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AIMS Spinal cord injury is common among young subjects involved in motor vehicle accidents. Mechanisms and attempts to reverse post-traumatic pathophysiologic consequences are still being investigated. Unfortunately no effective and well-established treatment modality has been developed so far. The regeneration capability of the human nervous system following an injury is highly limited. METHODS The study involved four patients (two male, two female) who had suffered spinal cord injury as a result of various types of trauma. On neurologic examination, all the patients were determined to be in American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) grade A. All patients were treated with decompression, stabilization and fusion for vertebral trauma anteriorly, as well as intralesional implantation of cellular bone marrow concentrates using a posterior approach 1 month after the first operation. The patients were then treated and followed-up in the physical rehabilitation clinic. RESULTS At the end of the post-operative 1-year follow-up, two of the patients were classified as ASIA C while one was classified as ASIA B. One patient showed no neurologic change; none of the patients suffered from any complications or adverse effects as a result of intralesional application of bone marrow cells. CONCLUSIONS The results of this experimental study show the potential contribution of intralesional implantation of bone marrow to neuronal regeneration in the injured spinal cord, with neuronal changes. In light of the results of this experimental study, the potential for regenerative treatment in injuries of the human spinal cord is no longer a speculation but an observation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayhan Attar
- Department of Neurosurgery, Ankara University, School of Medicine, Ankara, Turkey
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O'Malley HA, Shreiner AB, Chen GH, Huffnagle GB, Isom LL. Loss of Na+ channel beta2 subunits is neuroprotective in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis. Mol Cell Neurosci 2008; 40:143-55. [PMID: 19013247 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2008.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2007] [Revised: 06/10/2008] [Accepted: 10/02/2008] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a CNS disease that includes demyelination and axonal degeneration. Voltage-gated Na+ channels are abnormally expressed and distributed in MS and its animal model, Experimental Allergic Encephalomyelitis (EAE). Up-regulation of Na+ channels along demyelinated axons is proposed to lead to axonal loss in MS/EAE. We hypothesized that Na+ channel beta2 subunits (encoded by Scn2b) are involved in MS/EAE pathogenesis, as beta2 is responsible for regulating levels of channel cell surface expression in neurons. We induced non-relapsing EAE in Scn2b(+/+) and Scn2b(-/-) mice on the C57BL/6 background. Scn2b(-/-) mice display a dramatic reduction in EAE symptom severity and lethality as compared to wildtype, with significant decreases in axonal degeneration and axonal loss. Scn2b(-/-) mice show normal peripheral immune cell populations, T cell proliferation, cytokine release, and immune cell infiltration into the CNS in response to EAE, suggesting that Scn2b inactivation does not compromise immune function. Our data suggest that loss of beta2 is neuroprotective in EAE by prevention of Na+ channel up-regulation in response to demyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather A O'Malley
- Department of Pharmacology, Program in Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Michigan, 1301 MSRB III, SPC 5632, 1150 W. Medical Center Dr., Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
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Hosseinzadeh H, Parvardeh S, Asl MN, Sadeghnia HR, Ziaee T. Effect of thymoquinone and Nigella sativa seeds oil on lipid peroxidation level during global cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury in rat hippocampus. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2007; 14:621-7. [PMID: 17291733 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2006.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2004] [Accepted: 09/01/2006] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
It has been previously reported that Nigella sativa oil (NSO) and thymoquinone (TQ), active constituent of N. sativa seeds oil, may prevent oxidative injury in various models. Therefore, we considered the possible effect of TQ and NSO on lipid peroxidation level following cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) in rat hippocampus. Male NMRI rats were divided into nine groups, namely, sham, control, ischemia and ischemia treated with NSO or TQ. TQ (2.5, 5 and 10 mg/kg), NSO (0.048, 0.192 and 0.384 mg/kg), phenytoin (50 mg/kg, as positive control) and saline (10 ml/kg, as negative control) were injected intraperitoneally immediately after reperfusion and the administration was continued every 24h for 72 h after induction of ischemia. The transient global cerebral ischemia was induced using four-vessel-occlusion method for 20 min. Lipid peroxidation level in hippocampus portion was measured as malondialdehyde (MDA) based on its reaction with thiobarbituric acid (TBA) following ischemic insult. The transient global cerebral ischemia induced a significant increase in TBA reactive substances (TBARS) level (p<0.001), in comparison with sham-operated animal. Pretreatment with TQ and NSO were resulted a significant decrease in MDA level as compared with ischemic group (66.9+/-1.5 vs. 297+/-2.5 nmol/g tissue for TQ, 10 mg/kg; p<0.001 and 153.5+/-1.3 nmol/g tissue for NSO, 0.384 mg/kg; p<0.001). Using a reversed-phase HPLC system, the amount of TQ in NSO was also quantified and was 0.58% w/w. These results suggest that TQ and NSO may have protective effects on lipid peroxidation process during IRI in rat hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Hosseinzadeh
- Pharmaceutical Research Center, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, PO Box 1365-91775, Mashhad, IR Iran.
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Ates O, Cayli SR, Gurses I, Turkoz Y, Tarim O, Cakir CO, Kocak A. Comparative neuroprotective effect of sodium channel blockers after experimental spinal cord injury. J Clin Neurosci 2007; 14:658-65. [PMID: 17532502 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2006.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2006] [Accepted: 03/27/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in loss of function below the lesion. Secondary injury following the primary impact includes a number of biochemical and cellular alterations leading to tissue necrosis and cell death. Influx of Na(+) ions into cells has been postulated to be a key early event in the pathogenesis of secondary traumatic and ischemic central nervous system injury. Previous studies have shown that some voltage-sensitive sodium channel blockers provide powerful neuroprotection. The purpose of the present study was to compare the neuroprotective effect of three sodium channel blockers-mexiletine, phenytoin and riluzole--after SCI. Ninety rats were randomly and blindly divided into five groups of 18 rats each: sham-operated group, trauma group (bolus injection of 1 mL physiological saline intraperiteonally [i.p.]), mexiletine treatment group (80 mg/kg, i.p.), phenytoin treatment group (200 mg/kg, i.p.) and riluzole treatment group (8 mg/kg, i.p.). Twenty-four hours after injury, the rats were killed for determination of spinal cord water content and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels. Motor function scores of six rats from each group were evaluated weekly for six weeks. Then the rats were killed for histopathological assessment. Although all the treatment groups revealed significantly lower MDA levels and spinal cord edema than the trauma group (p<0.05), the riluzole and mexiletine treatment groups were better than the phenytoin treatment group. In the chronic stage, riluzole and mexiletine treatment achieved better results for neurobehavioral and histopathological recovery than phenytoin treatment. In conclusion, all the tested Na(+) blockers had a neuroprotective effect after SCI; riluzole and mexiletine were superior to phenytoin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ozkan Ates
- Inonu University, School of Medicine, Department of Neurosurgery, Turgut Ozal Medical Center, 44069 Malatya, Turkey.
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