Cloning of the Rhizomucor miehei 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase gene and its heterologous expression in Mucor circinelloides

Fluvastatin: A Choice for COVID-19-associated Mucormycosis Management

SARS-CoV-2 invades the respiratory tract epithelium and can result in systemic inflammation prior to an infection caused by either bacteria or fungus. COVID-19- associated mucormycosis (CAM) is a serious condition that can occur during the time of the disease due to increased administration of corticosteroids. Various studies have suggested that statins may improve clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients. According to several preclinical reports, fluvastatin was shown to exert direct and indirect synergistic antifungal activity. Thus, fluvastatin could be considered a potential antifungal agent when no other option is available. Furthermore, in comparison with other statins, fluvastatin exhibits the fewest drug/drug interactions with anti-Mucorales azoles (e.g., isavuconazole and posaconazole), as well as with medicines that are used in solid organ transplant recipients (e.g., cyclosporine) and HIV-positive individuals (e.g., ritonavir); two groups of patients that have a higher risk of infection with Mucorales fungi following a SARSCoV- 2 infection.

Characterization of the Sterol 24-C-Methyltransferase Genes Reveals a Network of Alternative Sterol Biosynthetic Pathways in Mucor lusitanicus

Certain members of the order Mucorales can cause a life-threatening, often-fatal systemic infection called mucormycosis. Mucormycosis has a high mortality rate, which can reach 96 to 100% depending on the underlying condition of the patient. Mucorales species are intrinsically resistant to most antifungal agents, such as most of the azoles, which makes mucormycosis treatment challenging. The main target of azoles is the lanosterol 14α-demethylase (Erg11), which is responsible for an essential step in the biosynthesis of ergosterol, the main sterol component of the fungal membrane. Mutations in the erg11 gene can be associated with azole resistance; however, resistance can also be mediated by loss of function or mutation of other ergosterol biosynthetic enzymes, such as the sterol 24-C-methyltransferase (Erg6). The genome of Mucor lusitanicus encodes three putative erg6 genes (i.e., erg6a, erg6b, and erg6c). In this study, the role of erg6 genes in azole resistance of Mucor was analyzed by generating and analyzing knockout mutants constructed using the CRISPR-Cas9 technique. Susceptibility testing of the mutants suggested that one of the three genes, erg6b, plays a crucial role in the azole resistance of Mucor. The sterol composition of erg6b knockout mutants was significantly altered compared to that of the original strain, and it revealed the presence of at least four alternative sterol biosynthesis pathways leading to formation of ergosterol and other alternative, nontoxic sterol products. Dynamic operation of these pathways and the switching of biosynthesis from one to the other in response to azole treatment could significantly contribute to avoiding the effects of azoles by these fungi. IMPORTANCE The fungal membrane contains ergosterol instead of cholesterol, which offers a specific point of attack for the defense against pathogenic fungi. Indeed, most antifungal agents target ergosterol or its biosynthesis. Mucormycoses-causing fungi are resistant to most antifungal agents, including most of the azoles. For this reason, the drugs of choice to treat such infections are limited. The exploration of ergosterol biosynthesis is therefore of fundamental importance to understand the azole resistance of mucormycosis-causing fungi and to develop possible new control strategies. Characterization of sterol 24-C-methyltransferase demonstrated its role in the azole resistance and virulence of M. lusitanicus. Moreover, our experiments suggest that there are at least four alternative pathways for the biosynthesis of sterols in Mucor. Switching between pathways may contribute to the maintenance of azole resistance.

Mucormycosis: A hidden mystery of fungal infection, possible diagnosis, treatment and development of new therapeutic agents

Mucormycosis is a fungal infection which got worsens with time if not diagnosed and treated. The current COVID-19 pandemic has association with fungal infection specifically with mucormycosis. Already immunocompromised patients are easy target for COVID-19 and mucormycosis as well. COVID-19 infection imparts in weak immune system so chances of infection is comparatively high in COVID-19 patients. Furthermore, diabetes, corticosteroid medicines, and a weakened immune system are the most prevalent risk factors for this infection as we discussed in case studies here. The steroid therapy for COVID-19 patients sometimes have negative impact on the patient health and this state encounters many infections including mucormycosis. There are treatments available but less promising and less effective. So, researchers are focusing on the promising agents against mucormycosis. It is reported that early treatment with liposomal amphotericin B (AmB), manogepix, echinocandins isavuconazole, posacanazole and other promising therapeutic agents have overcome the burden of mucormycosis. Lipid formulations of AmB have become the standard treatment for mucormycosis due to their greater safety and efficacy. In this review article, we have discussed case studies with the infection of mucormycosis in COVID-19 patients. Furthermore, we focused on anti-mucormycosis agents with mechanism of action of various therapeutics, including coverage of new antifungal agents being investigated as part of the urgent global response to control and combat this lethal infection, especially those with established risk factors.

CRISPR-Cas9-mediated disruption of the HMG-CoA reductase genes of Mucor circinelloides and subcellular localization of the encoded enzymes

Terpenoid compounds, such as sterols, carotenoids or the prenyl groups of various proteins are synthesized via the mevalonate pathway. A rate-limiting step of this pathway is the conversion of 3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) to mevalonic acid catalyzed by the HMG-CoA reductase. Activity of this enzyme may affect several biological processes, from the synthesis of terpenoid metabolites to the adaptation to various environmental conditions. In this study, the three HMG-CoA reductase genes (i.e. hmgR1, hmgR2 and hmgR3) of the β-carotene producing filamentous fungus, Mucor circinelloides were disrupted individually and simultaneously by a recently developed in vitro plasmid-free CRISPR-Cas9 method. Examination of the mutants revealed that the function of hmgR2 and hmgR3 are partially overlapping and involved in the general terpenoid biosynthesis. Moreover, hmgR2 seemed to have a special role in the ergosterol biosynthesis. Disruption of all three genes affected the germination ability of the spores and the sensitivity to hydrogen peroxide. Disruption of the hmgR1 gene had no effect on the ergosterol production and the sensitivity to statins but caused a reduced growth at lower temperatures. By confocal fluorescence microscopy using strains expressing GFP-tagged HmgR proteins, all three HMG-CoA reductases were localized in the endoplasmic reticulum.

Deregulation of phytoene-β-carotene synthase results in derepression of astaxanthin synthesis at high glucose concentration in Phaffia rhodozyma astaxanthin-overproducing strain MK19

Background

A major obstacle to industrial-scale astaxanthin production by the yeast Phaffia rhodozyma is the strong inhibitory effect of high glucose concentration on astaxanthin synthesis. We investigated, for the first time, the mechanism of the regulatory effect of high glucose (> 100 g/L) at the metabolite and transcription levels.

Results

Total carotenoid, β-carotene, and astaxanthin contents were greatly reduced in wild-type JCM9042 at high (110 g/L) glucose; in particular, β-carotene content at 24–72 h was only 14–17% of that at low (40 g/L) glucose. The inhibitory effect of high glucose on astaxanthin synthesis appeared to be due mainly to repression of lycopene-to-β-carotene and β-carotene-to-astaxanthin steps in the pathway. Expression of carotenogenic genes crtE, pbs, and ast was also strongly inhibited by high glucose; such inhibition was mediated by creA, a global negative regulator of carotenogenic genes which is strongly induced by glucose. In contrast, astaxanthin-overproducing, glucose metabolic derepression mutant strain MK19 displayed de-inhibition of astaxanthin synthesis at 110 g/L glucose; this de-inhibition was due mainly to deregulation of pbs and ast expression, which in turn resulted from low creA expression. Failure of glucose to induce the genes reg1 and hxk2, which maintain CreA activity, also accounts for the fact that astaxanthin synthesis in MK19 was not repressed at high glucose.

Conclusion

We conclude that astaxanthin synthesis in MK19 at high glucose is enhanced primarily through derepression of carotenogenic genes (particularly pbs), and that this process is mediated by CreA, Reg1, and Hxk2 in the glucose signaling pathway.

Transcription of the three HMG-CoA reductase genes of Mucor circinelloides

BACKGROUND

Precursors of sterols, carotenoids, the prenyl groups of several proteins and other terpenoid compounds are synthesised via the acetate-mevalonate pathway. One of the key enzyme of this pathway is the 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase, which catalyses the conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonate. HMG-CoA reductase therefore affects many biological processes, such as morphogenesis, synthesis of different metabolites or adaptation to environmental changes. In this study, transcription of the three HMG-CoA reductase genes (designated as hmgR1, hmgR2 and hmgR3) of the β-carotene producing Mucor circinelloides has been analysed under various culturing conditions; effect of the elevation of their copy number on the carotenoid and ergosterol content as well as on the sensitivity to statins has also been examined.

RESULTS

Transcripts of each gene were detected and their relative levels varied under the tested conditions. Transcripts of hmgR1 were detected only in the mycelium and its relative transcript level seems to be strongly controlled by the temperature and the oxygen level of the environment. Transcripts of hmgR2 and hmgR3 are already present in the germinating spores and the latter is also strongly regulated by oxygen. Overexpression of hmgR2 and hmgR3 by elevating their copy numbers increased the carotenoid content of the fungus and decreased their sensitivity to statins.

CONCLUSIONS

The three HMG-CoA reductase genes of M. circinelloides displayed different relative transcript levels under the tested conditions suggesting differences in their regulation. They seem to be especially involved in the adaptation to the changing oxygen tension and osmotic conditions of the environment as well as to statin treatment. Overexpression of hmgR2 and hmgR3 may be used to improve the carotenoid content.

The 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme-A reductases from fungi: a proposal as a therapeutic target and as a study model

The enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme-A reductase (HMGR) catalyzes the conversion of HMG-Co-A into mevalonate. This step is the limiting point for the synthesis of cholesterol in mammals and ergosterol in fungi. We describe in this article the genome organization of HMGR coding genes and those deduced from different fungi, recount the evidence showing statins as HMGR inhibitors for ergosterol synthesis and its effect in yeast viability, and propose fungal HMGR (HMGRf) as a model to study the use of pharmaceutical compounds to inhibit cholesterol and ergosterol synthesis. Bibliographical search and bioinformatic analyses were performed and discussed. HMGRfs belong to the class I with a high homology in the catalytic region. The sterol biosynthetic pathway in humans and fungi share many enzymes in the initial steps (such as the HMGR enzyme), but in the last steps enzymes are different rendering the two final products: cholesterol in mammals and ergosterol in fungi. With regards to inhibitors such as statins and other compounds, these affect also fungal viability. Since HMGR from Schizosaccharomyces pombe and Ustilago maydis are very similar to the human HMGR in the catalytic regions, we propose that fungal enzymes can be used to test inhibitors for a potential use in humans. We consider that HMGRf is a good therapeutic target to design and test new antifungal compounds. This manuscript is part of the series of works presented at the "V International Workshop: Molecular genetic approaches to the study of human pathogenic fungi" (Oaxaca, Mexico, 2012).

Astaxanthin biosynthesis is enhanced by high carotenogenic gene expression and decrease of fatty acids and ergosterol in a Phaffia rhodozyma mutant strain

An astaxanthin-overproducing (∼1000 μg g(-1)) strain of Phaffia rhodozyma, termed MK19, was established through 1-methyl-3-nitro-1-nitrosoguanidine and Co60 mutagenesis from wild-type JCM9042 (merely 35-67 μg g(-1)). The total fatty acid content of MK19 was much lower than that of the wild type. Possible causes of the astaxanthin increase were studied at the gene expression level. The expression of the carotenogenic genes crtE, crtI, pbs, and ast, which are responsible for astaxanthin biosynthesis from geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate, was highly induced at the mRNA level, leading to excessive astaxanthin accumulation. In contrast, transcription levels of the genes (hmgs, hmgr, idi, mvk, mpd, fps), responsible for the initial steps in the terpenoid pathway, were essentially the same in wild type and MK19. Although fatty acid and total ergosterol content were reduced by 40-70 mg g(-1) and 760.3 μg g(-1) , respectively, in MK19 as compared with the wild type, but the transcription levels of rate-limiting genes in fatty acid and ergosterol pathways such as acc and sqs were similar. Because fatty acids and ergosterol are two branch pathways of astaxanthin biosynthesis in P. rhodozyma, our findings indicate that enhancement of astaxanthin in MK19 results from decreased fatty acid and ergosterol biosynthesis, leading to precursor accumulation, and transfer to the astaxanthin pathway. Strengthening of the mevalonate pathway is suggested as a promising metabolic engineering approach for further astaxanthin enhancement in MK19.

Antifungal activity of statins and their interaction with amphotericin B against clinically important Zygomycetes

The in vitro antifungal activity of different statins and the combinations of the two most effective ones (fluvastatin and rosuvastatin) with amphotericin B were investigated in this study on 6 fungal isolates representing 4 clinically important genera, namely Absidia, Rhizomucor, Rhizopus and Syncephalastrum . The antifungal effects of statins revealed substantial differences. The synthetic statins proved to be more effective than the fungal metabolites. All investigated strains proved to be sensitive to fluvastatin. Fluvastatin and rosuvastatin acted synergistically and additively with amphotericin B in inhibiting the fungal growth in clinically available concentration ranges. Results suggest that statins combined with amphotericin B have a therapeutic potential against fungal infections caused by Zygomycetes species.