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Pan Y, Xin W, Wei W, Tatenhorst L, Graf I, Popa-Wagner A, Gerner ST, Huber SE, Kilic E, Hermann DM, Bähr M, Huttner HB, Doeppner TR. Knockdown of NEAT1 prevents post-stroke lipid droplet agglomeration in microglia by regulating autophagy. Cell Mol Life Sci 2024; 81:30. [PMID: 38212456 PMCID: PMC10784396 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-023-05045-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Lipid droplets (LD), lipid-storing organelles containing neutral lipids like glycerolipids and cholesterol, are increasingly accepted as hallmarks of inflammation. The nuclear paraspeckle assembly transcript 1 (NEAT1), a long non-coding RNA with over 200 nucleotides, exerts an indispensable impact on regulating both LD agglomeration and autophagy in multiple neurological disorders. However, knowledge as to how NEAT1 modulates the formation of LD and associated signaling pathways is limited. METHODS In this study, primary microglia were isolated from newborn mice and exposed to oxygen-glucose-deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R). To further explore NEAT1-dependent mechanisms, an antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) was adopted to silence NEAT1 under in vitro conditions. Studying NEAT1-dependent interactions with regard to autophagy and LD agglomeration under hypoxic conditions, the inhibitor and activator of autophagy 3-methyladenine (3-MA) and rapamycin (RAPA) were used, respectively. In a preclinical stroke model, mice received intraventricular injections of ASO NEAT1 or control vectors in order to yield NEAT1 knockdown. Analysis of readout parameters included qRT-PCR, immunofluorescence, western blot assays, and behavioral tests. RESULTS Microglia exposed to OGD/R displayed a temporal pattern of NEAT1 expression, peaking at four hours of hypoxia followed by six hours of reoxygenation. After effectively silencing NEAT1, LD formation and autophagy-related proteins were significantly repressed in hypoxic microglia. Stimulating autophagy in ASO NEAT1 microglia under OGD/R conditions by means of RAPA reversed the downregulation of LD agglomeration and perilipin 2 (PLIN2) expression. On the contrary, application of 3-MA promoted repression of both LD agglomeration and expression of the LD-associated protein PLIN2. Under in vivo conditions, NEAT1 was significantly increased in mice at 24 h post-stroke. Knockdown of NEAT1 significantly alleviated LD agglomeration and inhibited autophagy, resulting in improved cerebral perfusion, reduced brain injury and increased neurological recovery. CONCLUSION NEAT1 is a key player of LD agglomeration and autophagy stimulation, and NEAT1 knockdown provides a promising therapeutic value against stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongli Pan
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Wenqiang Xin
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Wei Wei
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Lars Tatenhorst
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Irina Graf
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Aurel Popa-Wagner
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Stefan T Gerner
- Department of Neurology, University of Giessen Medical School, Giessen, Germany
| | - Sabine E Huber
- Department of Neurology, University of Giessen Medical School, Giessen, Germany
| | - Ertugrul Kilic
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul Medeniyet University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Dirk M Hermann
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Mathias Bähr
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Hagen B Huttner
- Department of Neurology, University of Giessen Medical School, Giessen, Germany
| | - Thorsten R Doeppner
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
- Department of Neurology, University of Giessen Medical School, Giessen, Germany.
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Medical University of Varna, Varna, Bulgaria.
- Center for Mind, Brain and Behavior (CMBB), University of Marburg and Justus Liebig University Giessen, Giessen, Germany.
- Research Institute for Health Sciences and Technologies (SABITA), Medipol University, Istanbul, Turkey.
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Lan ZQ, Ge ZY, Lv SK, Zhao B, Li CX. The regulatory role of lipophagy in central nervous system diseases. Cell Death Discov 2023; 9:229. [PMID: 37414782 DOI: 10.1038/s41420-023-01504-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Lipid droplets (LDs) are the organelles for storing neutral lipids, which are broken down when energy is insufficient. It has been suggested that excessive accumulation of LDs can affect cellular function, which is important to coordinate homeostasis of lipids in vivo. Lysosomes play an important role in the degradation of lipids, and the process of selective autophagy of LDs through lysosomes is known as lipophagy. Dysregulation of lipid metabolism has recently been associated with a variety of central nervous system (CNS) diseases, but the specific regulatory mechanisms of lipophagy in these diseases remain to be elucidated. This review summarizes various forms of lipophagy and discusses the role that lipophagy plays in the development of CNS diseases in order to reveal the related mechanisms and potential therapeutic targets for these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuo-Qing Lan
- Department of General practice medicine, the Fourth Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Yiwu, P.R. China
| | - Zi-Yi Ge
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China
| | - Shu-Kai Lv
- Department of General practice medicine, the Fourth Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Yiwu, P.R. China
| | - Bing Zhao
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China.
| | - Cai-Xia Li
- Department of General practice medicine, the Fourth Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Yiwu, P.R. China.
- Department of Anesthesiology, the First Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, P.R. China.
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3
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Zhu XL, Zhang HW, Peng WJ, Gao S, Yang ZL, Zhang JQ, Liu XS. Autophagy impairment is involved in midazolam-induced lipid droplet accumulation and consequent phagocytosis decrease in BV2 cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2023; 643:147-156. [PMID: 36609155 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2022.12.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
An increasing number of experimental and clinical observation suggest that the use of anaesthetics is closely associated with postoperative central nervous system (CNS) complications, such as delirium and cognitive dysfunction. Brain energy rescue is an emerging therapeutic strategy for central nervous system disease (CNSDs). However, the effect of anaesthetics on nerve cell energy utilisation, especially microglia, and its potential effects on cell function still unclear. Elucidating the effects of anaesthetics on lipid droplets, which are specific lipid storage organs, and phagocytosis of microglia is crucial to discover a new therapeutic concept for postoperative CNS complications. Here, we studied the effects of the commonly used anaesthetic midazolam on lipid droplets and phagocytosis in immortalised microglial BV2 cells. Lipid droplets were assessed by flow cytometry and triglyceride quantification. The phagocytosis of BV2 cells was evaluated by detecting their phagocytosis by latex beads. Additionally, the autophagy of BV2 cells was evaluated by western blot and observation under microscopy. Our results showed that midazolam caused lipid droplet accumulation and reduced phagocytosis in BV2 cells, and inhibition of lipid droplet accumulation partially restored phagocytosis. Furthermore, midazolam blocks autophagic degradation by increasing phosphorylated TFEB in BV2 cells, inhibition of midazolam-increased phosphorylated TFEB might contribute to the improvement of autophagic flux by rapamycin. Moreover, promoting autophagy reverse the lipid droplet accumulation and phagocytosis decrease. This study suggests autophagy is a target for attenuating lipid droplet accumulation, normal degradation of lipid droplets is important for maintaining microglia phagocytosis and attenuating the side effects of midazolam on the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Ling Zhu
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Anhui Medical University, China
| | - Hui-Wen Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Anhui Medical University, China
| | - Wen-Jing Peng
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Anhui Medical University, China
| | - Shan Gao
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Zhi-Lai Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Anhui Medical University, China
| | - Ji-Qian Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Anhui Medical University, China.
| | - Xue-Sheng Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine of Anhui Higher Education Institutes, Anhui Medical University, China.
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4
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Dong R, Huang R, Wang J, Liu H, Xu Z. Effects of Microglial Activation and Polarization on Brain Injury After Stroke. Front Neurol 2021; 12:620948. [PMID: 34276530 PMCID: PMC8280287 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.620948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke is one of the most common causes of death worldwide. The subsequent development of neuroinflammation and brain edema dramatically increases the risks associated with stroke, leading to a substantial increase in mortality. Although considerable progress has been made in improving cerebral perfusion in the acute phase of stroke, effective treatment options for the subacute and chronic phases associated with cerebral infarction are limited. Microglia, the innate immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS), can be activated and polarized to take on different phenotypes in response to stimulations associated with stroke, including pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory phenotypes, which affect the prognosis of stroke. Therefore, investigation of the activation and polarizing mechanisms of microglia plays a critical role in treating stroke. The aim of this article was to investigate the significance of microglial phenotype regulation in stroke treatment by summarizing the activation, polarizing mechanisms, and general microglia characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Dong
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Renxuan Huang
- Department of Neurosurgery, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jiaoqi Wang
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Hongyu Liu
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Zhongxin Xu
- Department of Neurology, China-Japan Union Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, China
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Lyu J, Xie D, Bhatia TN, Leak RK, Hu X, Jiang X. Microglial/Macrophage polarization and function in brain injury and repair after stroke. CNS Neurosci Ther 2021; 27:515-527. [PMID: 33650313 PMCID: PMC8025652 DOI: 10.1111/cns.13620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of disability and mortality, with limited treatment options. After stroke injury, microglia and CNS‐resident macrophages are rapidly activated and regulate neuropathological processes to steer the course of functional recovery. To accelerate this recovery, microglia can engulf dying cells and clear irreparably‐damaged tissues, thereby creating a microenvironment that is more suitable for the formation of new neural circuitry. In addition, monocyte‐derived macrophages cross the compromised blood‐brain barrier to infiltrate the injured brain. The specific functions of myeloid lineage cells in brain injury and repair are diverse and dependent on phenotypic polarization statuses. However, it remains to be determined to what degree the CNS‐invading macrophages occupy different functional niches from CNS‐resident microglia. In this review, we describe the physiological characteristics and functions of microglia in the developing and adult brain. We also review (a) the activation and phenotypic polarization of microglia and macrophages after stroke, (b) molecular mechanisms that control polarization status, and (c) the contribution of microglia to brain pathology versus repair. Finally, we summarize current breakthroughs in therapeutic strategies that calibrate microglia/macrophage responses after stroke. The present review summarizes recent advances in microglial research in relation to stroke with emphases on microglial/macrophage phenotypic polarization and function in brain injury and repair. It also reviews the physiological characteristics and functions of microglia in the developing and adult brain, and describes current breakthroughs in therapeutic strategies that calibrate microglia/macrophage responses after stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junxuan Lyu
- Department of Neurology, Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Di Xie
- Department of Neurology, Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Tarun N Bhatia
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Rehana K Leak
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Xiaoming Hu
- Department of Neurology, Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Xiaoyan Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders & Recovery, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.,Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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6
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Hung WT, Wang CH, Lin SY, Cheng SY, Liao LY, Lu LY, Chen YJ, Huang YZ, Lin CH, Hsueh CM. Leptin protects brain from ischemia/reperfusion-induced infarction by stabilizing the blood-brain barrier to block brain infiltration by the blood-borne neutrophils. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 52:4890-4907. [PMID: 32638449 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying leptin-mediated brain protection against cerebral ischemia were investigated at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and neutrophil level. Through the ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) animal model, we found that leptin expression level was significantly decreased in ischemic hemisphere. Brain injection with leptin (15 μg/kg, intracisternally) could block the I/R-increased BBB permeability, activation of matrix metallopeptidase 9 (MMP-9) and brain infiltration of blood-borne neutrophils to reduce the infarct volume of ischemic brain. The brain expression level of tight junction protein ZO-1 as well as number and motility of neutrophils in blood was all increased by the same injection, indicating BBB stability (rather than reduction in neutrophils) played a major role in the leptin-inhibited brain infiltration of neutrophils. Leptin-mediated protection of BBB was further confirmed in vitro, through a BBB cellular model under the in vitro ischemic condition (G/R: glucose-oxygen-serum deprivation followed by GOS restoration). The results showed that leptin again could block the G/R-increased neutrophil adherence to EC layer as well as BBB permeability, likely by stimulating the endothelial expression of ZO-1 and VE-Cadherin. The study has demonstrated that leptin could protect ischemic brain via multiple ways (other than neuronal protection), by inhibiting the BBB permeability, brain infiltration of the blood-borne neutrophils and neutrophil adherence to vascular ECs. The role of leptin in vascular biology of stroke could further support its therapeutic potential in other neurodegenerative diseases, associated with BBB disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Ting Hung
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung City, Taiwan
| | - Chen-Hsuan Wang
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung City, Taiwan.,Department of Adapted Physical Education, National Taiwan Sport University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Yi Lin
- Center for Geriatrics and Gerontology, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung City, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Yun Cheng
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung City, Taiwan
| | - Li-Ya Liao
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung City, Taiwan
| | - Li-Yu Lu
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung City, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Ju Chen
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung City, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Zhen Huang
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung City, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Hsin Lin
- Department of Medical Research, Mackay Memorial Hospital, New Taipei City, Taiwan.,Department of Bioscience Technology, Chung Yuan Christian University, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Mei Hsueh
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung City, Taiwan.,The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung City, Taiwan
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7
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Altered lncRNAs Transcriptomic Profiles in Atherosclerosis-Induced Ischemic Stroke. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2020; 42:265-278. [PMID: 32653974 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-020-00918-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) can not only regulate gene transcription and translation, but also participate in the development of central nervous system diseases as epigenetic modification factors. However, their functional significance in atherosclerosis-induced ischemic stroke (AIIS) is unclear. The study aimed to screen out differentially expressed lncRNAs (delncRNAs), and to elucidate their potential regulatory mechanisms in the pathophysiology of AIIS. Based on the clinicopathological features and clinical images, we screened out 10 patients with AIIS and recruited 10 healthy volunteers. Then we used microarray to detect the whole blood RNA of subjects, and explored the biological functions of delncRNAs by GO and KEGG analysis. After further analyzing the delncRNAs of THP-1 stimulated with ox-LDL, selective lncRNAs were screened and a corresponding lncRNA-mRNA interaction network was constructed through co-expression analysis. We yielded 180 delncRNAs (44 up-regulated and 136 down-regulated) and 218 demRNAs (45 up-regulated and 173 down-regulated). Lnc-SCARNA8 and lnc-SNRPN-2 are the most significant elevated and decreased lncRNA in AIIS, respectively. The delncRNAs may play a significant role in ubiquitination-mediated protein degradation signaling pathways. According to lncRNA-mRNA network, the expression of vacuolar protein sorting 13 homolog B (VPS13B) and biliverdin reductase B (BLVRB) were significantly regulated. Our findings suggest that the ubiquitinated proteasome pathway, VPS13B and BLVRB may play a fundamental role in the pathological process of AIIS.
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Song J, Kim YS, Lee DH, Lee SH, Park HJ, Lee D, Kim H. Neuroprotective effects of oleic acid in rodent models of cerebral ischaemia. Sci Rep 2019; 9:10732. [PMID: 31341184 PMCID: PMC6656890 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-47057-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Oleic acid (OA) is released from brain phospholipids after cerebral ischaemia; however, its role in ischaemic injury remains unknown. We hypothesised that OA has neuroprotective effects after cerebral ischaemia, which may be exerted through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) activation, since OA is an endogenous ligand of PPAR-γ. The effects of OA administration were evaluated in rodent models of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), photothrombosis, and four-vessel occlusion (4-VO). We determined the time window of therapeutic opportunity and examined the ability of the PPAR-γ antagonist GW9662 to reverse OA’s protective effects after MCAO. We found that OA administration decreased the MCAO-induced infarct volume and functional deficits, photothrombosis-induced infarct volume, and 4-VO-induced hippocampal neuronal death. Additionally, OA was highly efficacious when administered up to 3 h after MCAO. Pre-treatment with GW9662 abolished the inhibitory effects of OA on the infarct volume and immunoreactivity of key inflammatory mediators in the ischaemic cortex. Our results indicate that OA has neuroprotective effects against transient and permanent focal cerebral ischaemia, as well as global cerebral ischaemia. It may have therapeutic value for the ischaemic stroke treatment with a clinically feasible therapeutic window. The OA-mediated neuroprotection might be attributable to its anti-inflammatory actions through PPAR-γ activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jungbin Song
- Department of Herbal Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Young-Sik Kim
- Department of Herbal Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Hwan Lee
- Department of Herbal Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Hyun Lee
- Korea Institute of Science and Technology for Eastern Medicine (KISTEM) NeuMed Inc., 88 Imun-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02440, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo Jin Park
- Korea Institute of Science and Technology for Eastern Medicine (KISTEM) NeuMed Inc., 88 Imun-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02440, Republic of Korea
| | - Donghun Lee
- Department of Herbal Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Gachon University, 1342 Seongnamdae-ro, Sujeong-gu, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, 13120, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hocheol Kim
- Department of Herbal Pharmacology, College of Korean Medicine, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea.
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