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Abstract
Informative and realistic mouse models of high-risk neuroblastoma are central to understanding mechanisms of tumour initiation, progression, and metastasis. They also play vital roles in validating tumour drivers and drug targets, as platforms for assessment of new therapies and in the generation of drug sensitivity data that can inform treatment decisions for individual patients. This review will describe genetically engineered mouse models of specific subsets of high-risk neuroblastoma, the development of patient-derived xenograft models that more broadly represent the diversity and heterogeneity of the disease, and models of primary and metastatic disease. We discuss the research applications, advantages, and limitations of each model type, the importance of model repositories and data standards for supporting reproducible, high-quality research, and potential future directions for neuroblastoma mouse models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alvin Kamili
- Children's Cancer Institute Australia, Lowy Cancer Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW, Australia.,School of Women's and Children's Health, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - Caroline Atkinson
- Children's Cancer Institute Australia, Lowy Cancer Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW, Australia.,School of Women's and Children's Health, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW, Australia
| | - Toby N Trahair
- Children's Cancer Institute Australia, Lowy Cancer Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW, Australia.,School of Women's and Children's Health, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW, Australia.,Kids Cancer Centre, Sydney Children's Hospital, Randwick, NSW, Australia
| | - Jamie I Fletcher
- Children's Cancer Institute Australia, Lowy Cancer Research Centre, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW, Australia. .,School of Women's and Children's Health, UNSW Sydney, Kensington, NSW, Australia.
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NDPKA is not just a metastasis suppressor - be aware of its metastasis-promoting role in neuroblastoma. J Transl Med 2018; 98:219-227. [PMID: 28991262 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2017.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 07/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
NDPK-A, encoded by nm23-H1 (also known as NME1) was the first metastasis suppressor discovered. Much of the attention has been focused on the metastasis-suppressing role of NDPK-A in human tumors, including breast carcinoma and melanoma. However, compelling evidence points to a metastasis-promoting role of NDPK-A in certain tumors such as neuroblastoma and lymphoma. To balance attention on this contrariety of NDPK-A in different cancer types, this review addresses the metastasis-promoting role of NDPK-A in neuroblastoma. Neuroblastoma is an embryonic tumor, arising from neural crest cells that fail to differentiate into the sympathetic nervous system. We summarize and discuss nm23-H1 genetics and the prognosis of neuroblastoma, structural and functional changes associated with the S120G mutation of NDPK-A, as well as the evidence supporting the role of NDPK-A as a metastasis promoter. Also discussed are the NDPK-A relevant molecular determinants of neuroblastoma metastasis, and metastasis-relevant neural crest development. Because of NDPK-A's dichotomous role in tumor metastasis as both a suppressor and a promoter, tumor genome/exome profiles are necessary to identify the molecular drivers of metastasis in the NDPK-A network for developing tumor-specific therapies.
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Ning BT, Yu B, Chan S, Chan JL, Huang JD, Chan GCF. Treatment of Neuroblastoma with an Engineered "Obligate" Anaerobic Salmonella typhimurium Strain YB1. J Cancer 2017; 8:1609-1618. [PMID: 28775780 PMCID: PMC5535716 DOI: 10.7150/jca.18776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Neuroblastoma is an embryonic solid tumor derived from the progenitors of the sympathetic nervous system. More than half of the patients developed metastatic disease at the time of initial diagnosis and had poor outcome with current therapeutic approaches. In recent years, some obligate and facultative anaerobic bacteria were reported to target the hypoxic and necrotic region of solid tumor models and caused tumor regression. We recently successfully constructed an "obligate" anaerobic Salmonella strain YB1 that was applied in breast cancer nude mice model by us. Here, we report the application of YB1 in neuroblastoma treatment. Methods The anti-cancer effect and side-effects of YB1 was examined in both in vitro and in vivo experiment. Previous established orthotopic neuroblastoma SCID/beige murine model using SK-NLP/luciferase cell line was adopted. ResultsIn vitro, YB1 induced apoptosis for up to 31.4% of the neuroblastoma cells under anaerobic condition, three times more than that under aerobic condition (10.9%). The expression of both Toll like Receptor 4 and 5 (TLR4 and TLR5) in cancer cells were significantly up-regulated (p<0.05, p<0.01 respectively) after the treatment of YB1 under anaerobic condition. In mouse model, YB1 preferentially accumulated inside the core of the tumors, rather than in normal tissues as our previous reported. This is suggestive of the hypoxic nature of tumor core. Tumor growth was significantly retarded in YB1 treatment group (n=6, P<0.01). Furthermore, there was no long-term organ damage noted in all the organs examined including heart, lung, liver, spleen and brain in the YB1 treated mice. Conclusion The genetic modified Salmonella strain YB1 is a promising anti-tumor strategy against the tumor bulk for neuroblastoma. Future study can be extended to other common cancer types to verify the relative efficacy on different neoplastic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-Tao Ning
- Pediatric Intensive Care Unit, Shanghai Children's medical Center affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, PR China.,Department of Peadiatrics & Adolescent, Queen Mary Hospital, LKS Faculty of Medicine, the University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, PR China
| | - Bin Yu
- Department of Biochemistry, LKS Faculty of Medicine, the University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, PR China
| | - Shing Chan
- Department of Peadiatrics & Adolescent, Queen Mary Hospital, LKS Faculty of Medicine, the University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, PR China
| | - Jian-Liang Chan
- Department of Peadiatrics & Adolescent, Queen Mary Hospital, LKS Faculty of Medicine, the University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, PR China
| | - Jian-Dong Huang
- Department of Biochemistry, LKS Faculty of Medicine, the University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, PR China
| | - Godfrey Chi-Fung Chan
- Department of Peadiatrics & Adolescent, Queen Mary Hospital, LKS Faculty of Medicine, the University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, PR China.,Center of Cancer Research, LKS Faculty of Medicine, the University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, PR China
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Analyses of Tumor Burden In Vivo and Metastasis Ex Vivo Using Luciferase-Expressing Cancer Cells in an Orthotopic Mouse Model of Neuroblastoma. Methods Mol Biol 2016; 1372:61-77. [PMID: 26530915 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-3148-4_5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Cancer xenograft mouse models are useful for examining and understanding tumor growth and cancer progression in vivo. With the development of bioluminescent imaging, these parameters can now be monitored noninvasively with relative ease. Herein we describe imaging of luciferase-expressing cancer cells to quantitatively measure tumor burden in vivo and metastases ex vivo. Specifically, we detail the methodology to examine the effect of shRNA-mediated knockdown of a target gene on the growth and spread of neuroblastoma tumors in immune-deficient mice.
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Surgery combined with controlled-release doxorubicin silk films as a treatment strategy in an orthotopic neuroblastoma mouse model. Br J Cancer 2014; 111:708-15. [PMID: 24921912 PMCID: PMC4134491 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2014.324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 05/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Neuroblastoma tumour resection goal is maximal tumour removal. We hypothesise that combining surgery with sustained, local doxorubicin application can control tumour growth. Methods: We injected human neuroblastoma cells into immunocompromised mouse adrenal gland. When KELLY cell-induced tumour volume was >300 mm3, 80–90% of tumour was resected and treated as follows: instantaneous-release silk film with 100 μg doxorubicin (100IR), controlled-release film with 200 μg (200CR) over residual tumour bed; and 100 and 200 μg intravenous doxorubicin (100IV and 200IV). Tumour volume was measured and histology analysed. Results: Orthotopic tumours formed with KELLY, SK-N-AS, IMR-32, SH-SY5Y cells. Tumours reached 1800±180 mm3 after 28 days, 2200±290 mm3 after 35 days, 1280±260 mm3 after 63 days, and 1700±360 mm3 after 84 days, respectively. At 3 days post KELLY tumour resection, tumour volumes were similar across all groups (P=0.6210). Tumour growth rate was similar in untreated vs control film, 100IV vs 100IR, and 100IV vs 200IV. There was significant difference in 100IR vs 200CR (P=0.0004) and 200IV vs 200CR (P=0.0003). Tumour growth with all doxorubicin groups was slower than that of control (P: <0.0001–0.0069). At the interface of the 200CR film and tumour, there was cellular necrosis, surrounded by apoptotic cells before reaching viable tumour cells. Conclusions: Combining surgical resection and sustained local doxorubicin treatment is effective in tumour control. Administering doxorubicin in a local, controlled manner is superior to giving an equivalent intravenous dose in tumour control.
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6
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RNAi-mediated stathmin suppression reduces lung metastasis in an orthotopic neuroblastoma mouse model. Oncogene 2013; 33:882-90. [PMID: 23396365 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2013.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2012] [Revised: 11/25/2012] [Accepted: 12/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Metastatic neuroblastoma is an aggressive childhood cancer of neural crest origin. Stathmin, a microtubule destabilizing protein, is highly expressed in neuroblastoma although its functional role in this malignancy has not been addressed. Herein, we investigate stathmin's contribution to neuroblastoma tumor growth and metastasis. Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-mediated stathmin suppression in two independent neuroblastoma cell lines, BE(2)-C and SH-SY5Y, did not markedly influence cell proliferation, viability or anchorage-independent growth. In contrast, stathmin suppression significantly reduced cell migration and invasion in both the neuroblastoma cell lines. Stathmin suppression altered neuroblastoma cell morphology and this was associated with changes in the cytoskeleton, including increased tubulin polymer levels. Stathmin suppression also modulated phosphorylation of the actin-regulatory proteins, cofilin and myosin light chain (MLC). Treatment of stathmin-suppressed neuroblastoma cells with the ROCKI and ROCKII inhibitor, Y-27632, ablated MLC phosphorylation and returned the level of cofilin phosphorylation and cell invasion back to that of untreated control cells. ROCKII inhibition (H-1152) and siRNA suppression also reduced cofilin phosphorylation in stathmin-suppressed cells, indicating that ROCKII mediates stathmin's regulation of cofilin phosphorylation. This data demonstrates a link between stathmin and the regulation of cofilin and MLC phosphorylation via ROCK. To examine stathmin's role in neuroblastoma metastasis, stathmin short hairpin RNA (shRNA)\luciferase-expressing neuroblastoma cells were injected orthotopically into severe combined immunodeficiency-Beige mice, and tumor growth monitored by bioluminescent imaging. Stathmin suppression did not influence neuroblastoma cell engraftment or tumor growth. In contrast, stathmin suppression significantly reduced neuroblastoma lung metastases by 71% (P<0.008) compared with control. This is the first study to confirm a role for stathmin in hematogenous spread using a clinically relevant orthotopic cancer model, and has identified stathmin as an important contributor of cell invasion and metastasis in neuroblastoma.
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Shohet JM, Ghosh R, Coarfa C, Ludwig A, Benham AL, Chen Z, Patterson DM, Barbieri E, Mestdagh P, Sikorski DN, Milosavljevic A, Kim ES, Gunaratne PH. A genome-wide search for promoters that respond to increased MYCN reveals both new oncogenic and tumor suppressor microRNAs associated with aggressive neuroblastoma. Cancer Res 2011; 71:3841-51. [PMID: 21498633 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-10-4391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
MYCN is a major driver of neuroblastoma tumorigenesis and MYCN amplification is the worst prognostic indicator of aggressive NB. To identify potentially therapeutic tumor suppressor microRNAs for aggressive NB, we utilized a conditional MYCN system to simulate MYCN-amplified and nonamplified tumor types and performed a genome-wide search for MYCN target microRNA promoters differentially repressed under high MYCN conditions. We identified 20 gene promoters hosting 30 microRNAs that were directly bound and differentially regulated by MYCN. Eleven of these genes showed significant clinical correlations for neuroblastoma with 4 genes linked with better survival and 7 genes linked with poor survival. Surprisingly, expression analysis of host genes and microRNAs demonstrated that 8 of 11 pairs were repressed by high levels of MYCN regardless of the clinical correlation of the host gene. We therefore predicted these intronic microRNAs would be tumor suppressors. In fact, detailed gain of function studies for two miRs, miR-591 and miR-558, confirmed potent tumor suppressive effects for miR-591 in orthotopic neuroblastoma xenografts. However, miR-558 markedly increased colony formation, proliferation, and tumor growth in vivo. Our data reveal host-gene independent functions of MYCN-target microRNAs and demonstrate that MYCN represses both tumor suppressive and proproliferative microRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M Shohet
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Hematology-Oncology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77204, USA.
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Cardoso CC, Bornstein SR, Hornsby PJ. Optimizing orthotopic cell transplantation in the mouse adrenal gland. Cell Transplant 2010; 19:565-72. [PMID: 20525431 DOI: 10.3727/096368910x509077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Orthotopic cell transplantation models are important for a complete understanding of cell-cell interactions as well as tumor biology. In published studies of orthotopic transplantation in the mouse adrenal gland, human neuroblastoma cells have been shown to invade and occupy the adrenal, but in these investigations a true orthotopic model was not established. Here we show an orthotopic model in which transplanted cells are retained within the adrenal gland by formation of a fibrin clot. To establish an appropriate technique, we used brightly fluorescent 10 microm polystyrene microspheres injected into the mouse adrenal gland. In the absence of fibrinogen/thrombin for clot formation, much of the injected material was extruded to the outside of the gland. When the microspheres were injected in a fibrinogen/thrombin mixture, fluorescence was confined to the adrenal gland. As a model neoplastic cell originating from the cortex of the gland, we used a tumorigenic bovine adrenocortical cell line. When 3 x 10(5) cells were implanted orthotopically, by 16 days the cell mass had expanded and had invaded the cortex, whereas when 1 x 10(5) cells were used, tumor masses were much smaller. We therefore subsequently used 3 x 10(5) cells. When mice were sacrificed at different time points, we found that tumor growth resulting was progressive and that by 26 days cells there was extensive invasion into the cortex or almost complete replacement of the cortex with tumor cells. As a model neoplastic cell of neural crest origin, we used SK-N-AS human neuroblastoma cells. Orthotopic transplantation of 3 x 10(5) cells resulted in extensive invasion and destruction of the gland by 26 days. In summary, the present orthotopic model for intra-adrenal cell transplantation is valuable for investigation of growth of neoplastic cells of both cortical and medullary origin and should be useful for future studies of cortex-medulla interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cibele C Cardoso
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Medical Center, University of Dresden, Germany
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Zhao H, Tang C, Cui K, Ang BT, Wong STC. A screening platform for glioma growth and invasion using bioluminescence imaging. J Neurosurg 2009; 111:238-46. [DOI: 10.3171/2008.8.jns08644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Object
The study of tumor cell growth and invasion in cancer biology is often limited by the inability to visualize tumor cell behavior in real time in animal models. The authors provide evidence that glioma cells are heterogeneous, with a subset responsible for increased invasiveness. The use of bioluminescence (BL) imaging to investigate dynamic aspects of glioma progression are discussed.
Methods
Glioblastoma multiforme–initiating cells were generated under conditions typically used to sustain neural stem cells. The invasiveness potential was determined using a Matrigel chamber. The presence of an “invasiveness gene signature” that correlated with patient survival outcome was ascertained through microarray gene expression analysis. To measure invasiveness, the authors devised a method focussed on BL imaging and tested it in vitro and in vivo using a zebrafish xenograft model. Bioluminescence imaging signals were verified using known inhibitors of glioma growth: AEE788, N-[(3,5-Difluorophenyl)acetyl]-L-alanyl-2-phenylglycine-1,1-dimethylethyl ester, and compound E.
Results
The authors' data support the idea that glioblastoma multiforme–initiating cells are heterogeneous and possess an invasive subset; BL imaging was used as a readout method to assess this invasive subset. The in vitro data obtained using a known glioma growth inhibitor, AEE788, showed that BL imaging could detect cellular movement and invasion even before overall cell death was detectable on conventional viability assays. Further work using a zebrafish tumor xenograft model supported the efficacy of BL imaging in monitoring changes in tumor load.
Conclusions
The authors used optically transparent zebrafish and high-resolution confocal imaging to track tumor growth in vivo and demonstrate the efficacy of this model for screening antitumor and antiangiogenic compounds. The integration of zebrafish transgenic technology into human cancer biological studies may aid in the development of cancer models targeting specific organs, tissues, or cell types within tumors. Zebrafish could also provide a cost-effective means for the rapid development of therapeutic agents directed at blocking tumor growth and invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Zhao
- 1Department of Radiology, The Methodist Hospital and The Center for Biotechnology and Informatics, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Weill Medical College, Cornell University, Houston, Texas
| | | | - Kemi Cui
- 1Department of Radiology, The Methodist Hospital and The Center for Biotechnology and Informatics, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Weill Medical College, Cornell University, Houston, Texas
| | - Beng-Ti Ang
- 3Neurosurgery, National Neuroscience Institute and Duke-National University of Singapore Graduate Medical School; and
- 4Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences, Agency for Science, Technolology and Research, Singapore
| | - Stephen T. C. Wong
- 1Department of Radiology, The Methodist Hospital and The Center for Biotechnology and Informatics, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, Weill Medical College, Cornell University, Houston, Texas
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Cardoso CC, Bornstein SR, Hornsby PJ. New methods for investigating experimental human adrenal tumorigenesis. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2009; 300:175-9. [PMID: 19047010 PMCID: PMC2676229 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2008.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2008] [Revised: 10/28/2008] [Accepted: 10/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Adenomas and nodules of the human adrenal cortex are common, whereas adrenocortical carcinomas are rare. Genes such as IGF2 have been suggested to be important in human adrenocortical tumorigenesis but their role has not been directly investigated. We describe here elements of a system in which hypotheses concerning the molecular basis for the formation of benign and malignant adrenocortical lesions can be experimentally tested. Various viral vectors have been employed in the study of adrenocortical cell biology. Because of the low proliferative rate of primary human adrenocortical (pHAC) cells, a lentiviral system is ideal for transducing these cells with genes that may alter their characteristics or cause them to acquire benign or malignant tumorigenicity. Cultures of pHAC cells were highly infectible with lentiviruses and showed a higher proliferative potential when transduced with a lentivirus encoding IGF2. For tumorigenesis studies of genetically modified adrenocortical cells, we use RAG2(-/-), gammac(-/-) mice. Using this immunodeficient mouse model, we established an orthotopic intra-adrenal cell transplantation technique for adrenocortical cells that should be of value for future studies of the experimental conversion of human adrenocortical cells to a benign or malignant tumorigenic state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cibele C Cardoso
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University Medical Center, University of Dresden, Germany
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11
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Generation and characterization of novel local and metastatic human neuroblastoma variants. Neoplasia 2008; 10:816-27. [PMID: 18683320 DOI: 10.1593/neo.08402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroblastoma (NB) is the most commonly occurring solid tumor in children. The disease usually arises in the adrenal medulla, and it is characterized by a remarkable heterogeneity in its progression. Most NB patients with an advanced disease have massive bone marrow infiltration at diagnosis. Lung metastasis represents a widely disseminated stage and is typically considered to be a terminal event. Much like other malignancies, NB progression is a complex, multistep process. The expression, function, and significance of the various factors involved in NB progression must be studied in relevant in vivo and in vitro models. Currently, models consisting of metastatic and nonmetastatic cell variants of the same genetic background exist for several types of cancer; however, none exists for NB. In the present study, we describe the generation of a NB metastasis model. SH-SY5Y and MHH-NB-11 NB cells were inoculated orthotopically into the adrenal glands of athymic nude mice. Neuroblastoma cells metastasizing to the lungs were isolated from mice bearing adrenal tumors. Lung metastatic variants were generated by repeated cycles of in vivo passage. Characterization of these variants included cellular morphology and immunophenotyping in vitro, aggressiveness in vivo, and various biologic parameters in vitro. The NB metastatic variant in each model displayed unique properties, and both metastatic variants demonstrated a metastatic phenotype in vivo. These reproducible models of human NB metastasis will serve as an unlimited source of transcriptomic and proteomic material. Such models can facilitate future studies on NB metastasis and the identification of novel NB biomarkers and targets for therapy.
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Winnard PT, Pathak AP, Dhara S, Cho SY, Raman V, Pomper MG. Molecular imaging of metastatic potential. J Nucl Med 2008; 49 Suppl 2:96S-112S. [PMID: 18523068 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.107.045948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
If molecular imaging is to prove clinically useful it will have to surpass current, primarily anatomic techniques in terms of sensitivity and the ability to detect minimal changes in tissue. One of the most important tests for molecular imaging is to determine whether it can image the metastatic potential of tumors. Like all predictive endeavors, the imaging of such "potential" is a daunting task, but one that only molecular imaging--rather than standard, anatomic techniques--is likely to solve. Although difficult, imaging of metastatic potential is also arguably the most important task for molecular imaging of cancer because it is generally the dissemination of malignant tissue, not its prolonged residence in an inopportune site, which kills the patient. Below are examples of uses of molecular imaging of metastases as well as of metastatic potential, the former being a far more developed area of clinical inquiry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul T Winnard
- Russell H Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Sciences, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore 21231, Maryland, USA
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Dickson PV, Hamner B, Ng CYC, Hall MM, Zhou J, Hargrove PW, McCarville MB, Davidoff AM. In vivo bioluminescence imaging for early detection and monitoring of disease progression in a murine model of neuroblastoma. J Pediatr Surg 2007; 42:1172-9. [PMID: 17618876 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2007.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We evaluated the potential of bioluminescence imaging (BLI) for early tumor detection, demonstrating occult sites of disseminated disease and assessing disease progression in a murine model of neuroblastoma. METHODS Neuroblastoma cells engineered to express the enzyme firefly luciferase were used to establish localized tumors and disseminated disease in SCID mice. Bioluminescent signal intensity was measured at serial time points, and compared with traditional methods of evaluating tumor growth. RESULTS Bioluminescence imaging detected subcutaneous and retroperitoneal tumors weeks before they were palpable or appreciable by ultrasound. Bioluminescent signal intensity at both sites then paralleled tumor growth. After intravenous administration of tumor cells, BLI revealed disseminated disease in the liver, lungs, and bone marrow, again weeks before any gross disease was present. The presence of tumor within these sites at early time points was confirmed by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Finally, BLI permitted a real-time, noninvasive, quantitative method for following response to therapy in a model of minimal residual disease. CONCLUSION Bioluminescence imaging detects tumor much earlier than traditional methods. In addition, it can detect, quantify, and follow micrometastasis in real-time during disease progression. This methodology is extremely valuable for studying tumor tissue tropism, mechanisms of metastasis, and response to therapy in murine tumor models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paxton V Dickson
- Department of Surgery, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
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14
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Gilad AA, Winnard PT, van Zijl PCM, Bulte JWM. Developing MR reporter genes: promises and pitfalls. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2007; 20:275-90. [PMID: 17451181 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.1134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
MR reporter genes have the potential to monitor transgene expression non-invasively in real time at high resolution. These genes can be applied to interrogate the efficacy of gene therapy, to assess cellular differentiation, cell trafficking, and specific metabolic activity, and also assess changes in the microenvironment. Efforts toward the development of MR reporter genes have been made for at least a decade, but, despite these efforts, the field is still in its early developmental stage. This reflects the fact that there are potential pitfalls, caused by the low sensitivity of detection, the need for substrates with their associated undesirable pharmacokinetics, and/or the difficult and, in some cases, delayed interpretation of signal changes. Nevertheless, significant progress has been made during the last few years. Whereas enzyme-based reporters were initially applied to NMR spectroscopic monitoring of changes in phosphor and fluorine metabolism, MRI-based approaches are now emerging that rely on: (1) enzyme-based cleavage of functional groups that block water (proton) exchange or protein binding of MR contrast agents; (2) expression of surface receptors that enable binding of specific MR contrast agents; (3) expression of para- and anti-ferromagnetic (metallo)proteins involved with iron metabolism, such as tyrosinase, transferrin receptor, and ferritin. After an introduction to the basic principles of designing promoters, expression vectors, and cloning of transgenes, a fresh look is provided on the use of reporter genes for optical (including bioluminescent) and nuclear imaging, with which MR reporter genes compete. Although progress in the use of MR reporter genes has been slow, newer strategies that use metalloproteins or alternative contrast mechanisms, with no need for substrates, promise rapid growth potential for this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Assaf A Gilad
- Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Division of MR Research, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 720 Rutland Avenue, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Winnard PT, Kluth JB, Raman V. Noninvasive optical tracking of red fluorescent protein-expressing cancer cells in a model of metastatic breast cancer. Neoplasia 2006; 8:796-806. [PMID: 17032496 PMCID: PMC1715931 DOI: 10.1593/neo.06304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2006] [Revised: 08/08/2006] [Accepted: 08/11/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We have evaluated the use of the Xenogen IVIS 200 imaging system for real-time fluorescence protein-based optical imaging of metastatic progression in live animals. We found that green fluorescent protein-expressing cells (100 x 10(6)) were not detectable in a mouse cadaver phantom experiment. However, a 10-fold lower number of tdTomato-expressing cells were easily detected. Mammary fat pad xenografts of stable MDA-MB-231-tdTomato cells were generated for the imaging of metastatic progression. At 2 weeks postinjection, barely palpable tumor burdens were easily detected at the sites of injection. At 8 weeks, a small contralateral mammary fat pad metastasis was imaged and, by 13 weeks, metastases to lymph nodes were detectable. Metastases with nodular composition were detectable within the rib cage region at 15 weeks. 3-D image reconstructions indicated that the detection of fluorescence extended to approximately 1 cm below the surface. A combination of intense tdTomato fluorescence, imaging at > or = 620 nm (where autofluorescence is minimized), and the sensitivity of the Xenogen imager made this possible. This study demonstrates the utility of the noninvasive optical tracking of cancer cells during metastatic progression with endogenously expressed fluorescence protein reporters using detection wavelengths of > or = 620 nm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul T Winnard
- Department of Radiology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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