Composition and Antifungal Activity of Essential Oil of Salvia sclarea from Italy

Chemometric Analysis Evidencing the Variability in the Composition of Essential Oils in 10 Salvia Species from Different Taxonomic Sections or Phylogenetic Clades

Essential oil (EO) of Salvia spp. has been widely used for culinary purposes and in perfumery and cosmetics, as well as having beneficial effects on human health. The present study aimed to investigate the quantitative and qualitative variations in EOs in wild-growing and cultivated pairs of samples from members in four Salvia sections or three clades, namely S. argentea L. (Sect. Aethiopis; Clade I-C), S. ringens Sm. (Sect. Eusphace; Clade I-D), S. verticillata L. (Sect. Hemisphace; Clade I-B), S. amplexicaulis Lam., and S. pratensis L. (Sect. Plethiosphace; Clade I-C). Furthermore, the natural variability in EO composition due to different genotypes adapted in different geographical and environmental conditions was examined by employing members of three Salvia sections or two phylogenetic clades, namely S. sclarea L. (six samples; Sect. Aethiopis or Clade I-C), S. ringens (three samples; Sect. Eusphace or Clade I-D), and S. amplexicaulis (five samples; Sect. Plethiosphace or Clade I-C). We also investigated the EO composition of four wild-growing species of two Salvia sections, i.e., S. aethiopis L., S. candidissima Vahl, and S. teddii of Sect. Aethiopis, as well as the cultivated material of S. virgata Jacq. (Sect. Plethiosphace), all belonging to Clade I-C. The EO composition of the Greek endemic S. teddii is presented herein only for the first time. Taken together, the findings of previous studies are summarized and critically discussed with the obtained results. Chemometric analysis (PCA, HCA, and clustered heat map) was used to identify the sample relationships based on their chemical classes, resulting in the classification of two distinct groups. These can be further explored in assistance of classical or modern taxonomic Salvia studies.

Effect of Salvia officinalis and S. sclarea on rats with a high-fat hypercaloric diet

Phytotherapy for the correction of excess body weight is widely used. However, a comprehensive study of herbal preparations on the organism of model animals has been carried out only for a few plant species. Supplementing the diet of rats with closely related sage species (Salvia officinalis L. and S. sclarea L.) against the background of high-fat hypercaloric diet triggered multidirectional changes in their metabolism. The addition of crushed dry shoots of S. officinalis to the diet of animals led to a sharp increase in their body weight (up to 130.8% of the initial one in 30 days of the experiment). The body weight of the rats treated with S. sclarea for 30 days increased only up to 103.8% of their initial weight and was lower than in the control group. Addition of S. officinalis caused an increase in daily weight gain up to 253.1% of the control group, and S. sclarea – its decrease to 27.8% of the daily weight gain in the control group. In the S. officinalis group, the relative weight of the brain, spleen, and thymus decreased, while in the S. sclarea group, the relative weight of the thymus decreased and that of the colon increased. Under the influence of S. officinalis, the concentration of urea, total bilirubin, and triglycerides in the blood plasma of male rats decreased and the concentration of total protein and the activity of alkaline phosphatase increased. While consuming S. sclarea shoots, there was an increase of alkaline phosphatase activity in the rats’ blood, but atherogenic index (23.1% of the level of the control group) sharply dropped due to an increase in the concentration of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (286.9% of the control) and a decrease in the concentration of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (67.7% of control). In rats feeding on S. sclarea shoots, we observed a decrease in the concentration of triglycerides in the blood (39.9% of the control), a decrease in the activity of gamma-glutamyl transferase (62.8%), and an increase in the Ca/P ratio (132.5% of the control group). No significant changes were observed in CBC and WBC differential of male rats when eating S. officinalis and S. sclarea shoots. According to the results of the open field test, the physical and orientational activity of male rats under the influence of S. officinalis significantly decreased by the end of the experiment. Emotional status of rats, on the contrary, decreased when they ate dry crushed shoots of S. sclarea in the composition of the food. Thus, excess body weight of rats in the conditions of hypercaloric diet led to more pronounced deviations from the norm while consuming dry crushed shoots of S. officinalis. The addition of S. sclarea dry crushed shoots to the animals’ diet normalized the body weight in comparison with the control group, reduced the negative manifestations of obesity at the biochemical and organismal levels. In this regard, the substances that contains S. sclarea should be carefully studied for anti-atherosclerotic activity, and tea supplemented with S. sclarea shoots can be recommended as a corrective supplement in the diet of overweight people.

A new chemotype with high tricyclene content from the essential oil of Salvia aegyptiaca L. growing in Algerian Pre-Sahara

The essential oil obtained by hydrodistillation from the aerial parts of Salvia aegyptiaca L. (Lamiaceae) growing wild in pre-Saharan region of Algeria, was analysed by GC-MS. Forty-one compounds were detected, representing 87.9% of the whole oil. The essential oil of S. aegyptiaca is characterized by the predominance of monoterpene derivatives (70.6%). The major constituents were tricyclene (22.9%), followed by limonene (17.5%), β-pinene (7.4%), caryophyllene oxide (3.2%) and β-caryophyllene (3.1%). Tricyclene, the main component in our analysis is generally absent in the volatile oils from other Salvia species, therefore, the Algerian accession of S. aegyptiaca may be categorized as a new chemo-type.

Sage Species Case Study on a Spontaneous Mediterranean Plant to Control Phytopathogenic Fungi and Bacteria

Sage species belong to the family of Labiatae/Lamiaceae and are diffused worldwide. More than 900 species of sage have been identified, and many of them are used for different purposes, i.e., culinary uses, traditional medicines and natural remedies and cosmetic applications. Another use of sage is the application of non-distilled sage extracts and essential oils to control phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi, for a sustainable, environmentally friendly agriculture. Biocidal propriety of non-distilled extracts and essential oils of sage are w documented. Antimicrobial effects of these sage extracts/essential oils depend on both sage species and bacteria and fungi species to control. In general, it is possible to choose some specific extracts/essential oils to control specific phytopathogenic bacteria or fungi. In this context, the use of nanotechnology techniques applied to essential oil from salvia could represent a future direction for improving the performance of eco-compatible and sustainable plant defence and represents a great challenge for the future.

Antimicrobial Properties of Plant Essential Oils against Human Pathogens and Their Mode of Action: An Updated Review

A wide range of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have been explored for their essential oils in the past few decades. Essential oils are complex volatile compounds, synthesized naturally in different plant parts during the process of secondary metabolism. Essential oils have great potential in the field of biomedicine as they effectively destroy several bacterial, fungal, and viral pathogens. The presence of different types of aldehydes, phenolics, terpenes, and other antimicrobial compounds means that the essential oils are effective against a diverse range of pathogens. The reactivity of essential oil depends upon the nature, composition, and orientation of its functional groups. The aim of this article is to review the antimicrobial potential of essential oils secreted from MAPs and their possible mechanisms of action against human pathogens. This comprehensive review will benefit researchers who wish to explore the potential of essential oils in the development of novel broad-spectrum key molecules against a broad range of drug-resistant pathogenic microbes.

Antimicrobial Activity of Blended Essential Oil Preparation

Antimicrobial activities of two blended essential oil preparations comprising lavender oil, petigrain oil, clary sage oil, ylang ylang oil and jasmine oil were evaluated against various pathogenic microorganisms. Both preparations showed antimicrobial activity in the agar disc diffusion assay against the Gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC6538 and S. epidermidis isolated strain, the fungus, Candida albicans ATCC10231, and the Gram-negative bacterium, Escherichia coli ATCC25922, but showed no activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC9027. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of these preparations was evaluated. By the broth microdilution assay, preparation 1, comprising lavender oil, clary sage oil, and ylang ylang oil (volume ratio 3:4:3), exhibited stronger antimicrobial activity than preparation 2, which was composed of petigrain oil, clary sage oil, and jasmine oil (volume ratio 3:4:3). Moreover, the sum of the fractional inhibitory concentrations (Σfic) of preparation 1 expressed a synergistic antimicrobial effect against the tested microorganisms (Σfic<1). The blended essential oil preparations, characterized for their components by GC/MS, contained linalyl acetate, and linalool as major components. Our experiments showed that the differential antimicrobial effect of either blended oil preparations or single/pure essential oils may be influenced by the amount of linalool and linalyl acetate, and the number of active components in either the blended preparations or single/pure essential oils. In addition, blended oil preparations expressed synergistic antimicrobial effect by the accumulation of active components such as linalool and linalyl acetate and combining active constituents of more than one oil.

Repellent effect of Salvia dorisiana, S. longifolia, and S. sclarea (Lamiaceae) essential oils against the mosquito Aedes albopictus Skuse (Diptera: Culicidae)

Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) has been one of the fastest spreading insects over the past 20 years. Its medical importance is due to the aggressive daytime human-biting behavior and the ability to vector many viruses, including dengue, LaCrosse, Eastern Equine encephalitis and West Nile viruses. In this research, the essential oils (EOs) extracted from fresh air dried leaves of Salvia dorisiana, S. longifolia, and S. sclarea (Lamiaceae) were evaluated for their repellent activity against A. albopictus by using the human-bait technique. The EOs chemical composition was also investigated, and EOs were divided in three different profiles on the basis of their chemical composition: EO with large amount of monoterpenes from S. sclarea, EO rich in oxygenated sesquiterpenes from S. dorisiana, and S. longifolia EO characterized by similar percentages of monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes. The efficacy protection from S. dorisiana, S. longifolia, and S. sclarea EOs, at dosages ranging from 0.004 to 0.4 μL cm(-2) of skin, was evaluated during 120 min of observation. Results indicated that S. dorisiana, S. longifolia, and S. sclarea EOs had a significant repellent activity (RD(50) =0.00035, 0.00049, and 0.00101 μL cm(-2), respectively), with differences in repellency rates, as a function of oil, dosage, and observation time. S. dorisiana was the most effective oil: at the two higher dosages, it gave almost complete protection (with a protective efficacy of 90.99% and 95.62%, respectively) for 90 min. The best protection time was achieved with S. dorisiana essential oil. It ranged from 9.2 to 92.4 min. Protection times of S. longifolia and S. sclarea oils ranged from 3.2 to 60 min, and from 3.6 to 64.2 min, respectively. Our findings clearly reveal that these EOs have a good repellent activity against A. albopictus, therefore they can be proposed to improve the efficacy of repellent formulations against the Asian tiger mosquito.

Chemical composition and antifungal activity of Salvia sclarea (Lamiaceae) essential oil

Clary sage (Salvia sclarea L.) is native to Southern Europe and is cultivated worldwide. The essential oil of clary sage was analyzed as a potential antifungal agent. The main compounds in the oil were linalyl acetate (52.83%) and linalool (18.18%). Food poisoning agents, spoilage fungi, and plant and animal pathogens were among the tested fungal species. The microdilution method was used to establish minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimal fungicidal concentrations (MFC). The commercial antimycotic bifonazole was used as a control. A concentration of 25 ?l/ml showed fungicidal activity against Aspergillus, Penicillium, and Fusarium species and Trichoderma viride. For the species Mucor mucedo and Aspergillus viride, the MFC was 15?l/ml; for Candida albicans, it was 10 ?l/ml, as in the case of bifonazole. Fungistatic and fungicidal activities of the oil against Cladosporium cladosporioides and Trichophyton menthagrophytes were recorded at concentrations of 2.5 ?l/ml and 5 ?l/ml. The most sensitive micromycetes were Cladosporium fulvum, Alternaria alternata, Phomopsis helianthi, and Phoma macdonaldii, where a concentration of 2.5 ?l/ml was lethal.