Public health challenges as a result of contaminated water sources in Kumba, Cameroon

Investigation of hydrochemical characteristic, water quality and associated health risks of metals and metalloids in water resources in the vicinity of Akamkpa quarry district, southeastern, Nigeria

Quarrying of rock aggregates generates produced water that, if not handled properly will be a source of pollution for nearby water bodies, thus affecting the chemistry of the water. This study examined the chemistry, impact of quarrying activities on water resources and the health consequences/risks posed by ingestion of the water by humans in the Akamkpa quarry region in southeastern Nigeria. Thirty (30) water samples consisting of pond water, stream water, hand dug wells, and borehole samples were collected and analyzed for their physicochemical parameters using standard methods. The results obtained from the analyses indicated that the water was moderately acidic, fresh, and not salty, with many parameters below the recommended standards with Ca2+, and HCO3- being the dominant ions present in the water resources. Rock weathering processes including silicate weathering as illustrated by hydrochemical facies, cross plots, and Gibbs diagrams are the dominant mechanisms influencing the quality and major ions chemistry of the water resources with minor contributions from dissolution, anthropogenic activities, and ion exchange. Ca-Mg-SO4-Cl and Na-K-HCO3- are the most important water types. Although the water quality index shows that the water is suitable for human use and irrigation, the mean values of As, Cd, Pb, and Se are above the acceptable limits. Additionally, the calculated contamination factor revealed the water resources are moderate to highly contaminated by As, Cd, Cr, Mo, Pb, Sb, and Se, and are therefore unsuitable for consumption with regards to these parameters. However, the residual sodium carbonate and water hazard index (WHI) values showed that 38% to 90% of sites in the quarry area were unsuitable for cultivation, 10-30% were in the low to medium impact category, and 60% were classified as risky and are from high to very high impact category. A non-cancer study of inhabitants living in the vicinity of the quarry area indicated that 6.7% of the sites have values greater than one, indicating that it may endanger the health of the people. Therefore, constant monitoring of the water quality is recommended as long-term use of contaminated water can harm humans, plants, and soils.

Hydrogeochemical assessment and health-related risks due to toxic element ingestion and dermal contact within the Nnewi-Awka urban areas, Nigeria

Awka and Nnewi metropolises are known for intensive socioeconomic activities that could predispose the available groundwater to pollution. In this paper, an integrated investigation of the drinking water quality and associated human health risks of contaminated groundwater was carried out using geochemical models, numerical water quality models, and the HHRISK code. Physicochemical analysis revealed that the groundwater pH is acidic. Predicted results from PHREEQC model showed that most of the major chemical and trace elements occurred as free mobile ions while a few were bounded to their various hydrated, oxides and carbonate phases. This may have limited their concentration in the groundwater; implying that apart from anthropogenic influx, the metals and their species also occur in the groundwater as a result of geogenic processes. The PHREEQC-based insights were also supported by joint multivariate statistical analyses. Groundwater quality index, pollution index of groundwater, heavy metal toxicity load, and heavy metal evaluation index revealed that 60-70% of the groundwater samples within the two metropolises are unsuitable for drinking as a result of anthropogenic influx, with Pb and Cd identified as the priority elements influencing the water quality. The HHRISK code evaluated the ingestion and dermal exposure pathway of the consumption of contaminated water for children and adult. Results revealed that groundwater from both areas poses a very high chronic and carcinogenic risk from ingestion than dermal contact with the children population showing greater vulnerability. Aggregated and cumulative HHRISK coefficients identified Cd, Pb, and Cu, to have the highest health impact on the groundwater quality of both areas; with residents around Awka appearing to be at greater risks. There is, therefore, an urgent need for the adoption of a state-of-the-art waste management and water treatment strategies to ensure safe drinking water for the public.

Incorporation of information entropy theory, artificial neural network, and soft computing models in the development of integrated industrial water quality index

Keeping purpose and targeted end-users in perspective, several water quality indices have been developed over the past decades to summarily convey water quality information to decision-makers and the general public. Industrial water quality is often analyzed based on the corrosion and scaling potentials (CSPs) of water. The commonly used CSP index parameters are chloride-sulfate mass ratio, Langelier index, Larson-Skold index, aggressive index, Ryznar stability index, and Puckorius scaling index. Simultaneous application of these index parameters often classifies a sample into multiple water quality categories, thereby introducing bias in assessment and decision-making. No previous numerical model integrated the CSP indices to provide a single, composite index value for a more unbiased interpretation of industrial water quality. Therefore, this paper proposes an integrated industrial water quality index (IIWQI) that integrates the six CSP index parameters for direct and concise assessment of industrial water resources. To achieve its aim, this research incorporated information entropy theory and soft computing techniques. The developed IIWQI was applied to water samples from southeastern Nigeria. Different classification groups were observed based on the six CSP indices. However, the IIWQI summarized the classifications of the water samples into three categories: Class 1 (28.57%, slight-medium corrosivity, significant scaling potential); Class 2 (46.43%, medium-high corrosivity, no scaling); and Class 3 (25.00%, high-very high corrosion, no scaling). Correlation analysis revealed the relationships between the physicochemical variables, CSP index parameters, IIWQI, and the entropy-based variability of the IIWQI. The spatiotemporal water quality groups were revealed by Q-mode hierarchical dendrograms. Multiple linear regression and two multilayer perceptron neural networks accurately predicted the IIWQI. The findings of this paper could help in better evaluation, interpretation, and management of industrial water quality.

Pit latrines may be a potential risk in rural China and low-income countries when dealing with COVID-19

According to the latest reports, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which caused coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), was successfully isolated from the excreta (stool and urine) of COVID-19 patients, suggesting SARS-CoV-2 could be transmitted through excreta contaminated water. As pit latrines and the use of untreated excreta as fertilizer were common in rural China, we surveyed 27 villages of Jiangxi and Hubei provinces and found that pit latrines could be a potential source of SARS-CoV-2 water pollution. Recently, bats have been widely recognized as the source of SARS-CoV-2. There were many possible intermediate hosts of SARS-CoV-2, including pangolin, snake, bird and fish, but which one was still not clear exactly. Here, we proposed a hypothesis to illustrate the mechanism that SARS-CoV-2 might spread from the excreta of infected humans in pit latrines to potential animal hosts, thus becoming a sustainable source of infection in rural China. Therefore, we believe that abolishing pit latrines and banning the use of untreated excreta as fertilizer can improve the local living environment and effectively prevent COVID-19 and other potential waterborne diseases that could emanate from the excreta of infected persons. Although this study focused on rural areas in China, the results could also be applied to low-income countries, especially in Africa.