Context-sensitive decrement times for inhaled anesthetics in obese patients explored with Gas Man®

Narrative Review of Prolonged Times to Tracheal Extubation After General Anesthesia With Intubation and Extubation in the Operating Room

This narrative review summarizes research about prolonged times to tracheal extubation after general anesthesia with both intubation and extubation occurring in the operating room or other anesthetizing location where the anesthetic was performed. The literature search was current through May 2023 and included prolonged extubations defined either as >15 minutes or at least 15 minutes. The studies showed that prolonged times to extubation can be measured accurately, are associated with reintubations and respiratory treatments, are rated poorly by anesthesiologists, are treated with flumazenil and naloxone, are associated with impaired operating room workflow, are associated with longer operating room times, are associated with tardiness of starts of to-follow cases and surgeons, and are associated with longer duration workdays. When observing prolonged extubations among all patients receiving general anesthesia, covariates accounting for most prolonged extubations are characteristics of the surgery, positioning, and anesthesia provider's familiarity with the surgeon. Anesthetic drugs and delivery systems routinely achieve substantial differences in the incidences of prolonged extubations. Occasional claims made that anesthesia drugs have unimportant differences in recovery times, based on medians and means of extubation times, are misleading, because benefits of different anesthetics are achieved principally by reducing the variability in extubation times, specifically by decreasing the incidence of extubation times sufficiently long to have economic impact (ie, the prolonged extubations). Collectively, the results show that when investigators in anesthesia pharmacology quantify the rate of patient recovery from general anesthesia, the incidence of prolonged times to tracheal extubation should be included as a study end point.

Preventing Prolonged Times to Awakening While Mitigating the Risk of Patient Awareness: Gas Man Computer Simulations of Sevoflurane Consumption From Brief, High Fresh Gas Flow Before the End of Surgery

Prolonged times to tracheal extubation are associated with adverse patient and economic outcomes. We simulated awakening patients from sevoflurane after long-duration surgery at 2% end-tidal concentration, 1.0 minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) in a 40-year-old. Our end-of-surgery target was 0.5 MAC, the Michigan Awareness Control Study's threshold for intraoperative alerts. Consider an anesthetist who uses a 1 liter/minute gas flow until surgery ends. During surgical closure, the inspired sevoflurane concentration is reduced from 2.05% to 0.62% (i.e., MAC-awake). The estimated time to reach 0.5 MAC is 28 minutes. From a previous study, 28 minutes exceeded ≥95% of surgical closure times for all 244 distinct surgical procedures (N=23,343 cases). Alternatively, the anesthetist uses 8 liters/minute gas flow with the vaporizer at MAC-awake for 1.8 minutes, which reduces the end-tidal concentration to 0.5 MAC. The anesthetist then increases the vaporizer to keep end-tidal 0.5 MAC until the surgery ends. An additional simulation shows that, compared with simulated end-tidal agent feedback control, this approach consumed 0.45 mL extra agent. Simulation results are the same for an 80-year-old patient. The extra 0.45 mL has a global warming potential comparable to driving 26 seconds at 40 kilometers (25 miles) per hour, comparable to route modification to avoid potential roadway hazards.

Associations Between Fresh Gas Flow and Duration of Anesthetic on the Maximum Potential Benefit of Anesthetic Gas Capture in Operating Rooms and in Postanesthesia Care Units to Capture Waste Anesthetic Gas

BACKGROUND

Sevoflurane and desflurane are halogenated hydrocarbons with global warming potential. We examined the maximum potential benefit assuming 100% efficiency of waste gas capture technology used in operating rooms and recovery locations.

METHODS

We performed computer simulations of adult patients using the default settings of the Gas Man software program, including the desflurane vaporizer setting of 9% and the sevoflurane vaporizer setting of 3.7%. We performed 21 simulations with desflurane and 21 simulations with sevoflurane, the count of 21 = 1 simulation with 0-hour maintenance + (1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 hours of maintenance) × (0.5, 1, 2, or 4 L per minute fresh gas flow during maintenance).

RESULTS

(1) A completely efficient gas capture system could recover a substantive amount of agent even when the case is managed with low flows. All simulations had at least 22 mL agent recovered per case, considerably greater than the 12 mL that we considered the minimum volume of economic and environmental importance. (2) All 42 simulations had at least 73% recovery of the total agent administered, considerably greater than the median 52% recovery measured during an experimental study with one gas capture technology and desflurane. (3) The maximum percentage desflurane (or sevoflurane) that could be captured decreased substantively with progressively longer duration anesthetics for low-flow anesthetics but not for higher-flow anesthetics. However, for all 8 combinations of drug and liters per minute simulated, there was a substantively greater recovery in milliliters of agent for longer duration anesthetics. In other words, if gas capture could be near perfectly efficient, it would have greater utility per case for longer duration anesthetics. (4) Even using a 100% efficient gas capture process, at most 6 mL liquid desflurane or 3 mL sevoflurane per case would be exhaled during the patient's stay in the postanesthesia care unit. Therefore, the volume of agent exhaled during the first 1 hour postoperatively is not a substantial amount from an environmental and economic perspective to warrant consideration of agent capture by having all these patients in the postanesthesia care unit, or equivalent locations, using the specialized anesthetic gas scavenging masks with access to the hospital scavenging system at each bed.

CONCLUSIONS

Simulations with Gas Man show a strong rationale based on agent uptake and distribution for using volatile anesthetic agent capture in operating rooms if the technology can be highly efficient at volatile agent recovery.

Systematic review with meta-analysis of relative risk of prolonged times to tracheal extubation with desflurane versus sevoflurane or isoflurane

The objective of this systematic review was to estimate the relative risk of prolonged times to tracheal extubation with desflurane versus sevoflurane or isoflurane. Prolonged times are defined as ≥15 min from end of surgery (or anesthetic discontinuation) to extubation in the operating room. They are associated with reintubations, naloxone and flumazenil administration, longer times from procedure end to operating room exit, greater differences between actual and scheduled operating room times, longer times from operating room exit to next case start, longer durations of the workday, and more operating room personnel idle while waiting for extubation. Published randomized clinical trials of humans were included. Generalized pivotal methods were used to estimate the relative risk of prolonged extubation for each study from reported means and standard deviations of extubation times. The relative risks were combined using DerSimonian-Laird random effects meta-analysis with Knapp-Hartung adjustment. From 67 papers, there were 78 two-drug comparisons, including 5167 patients. Studies were of high quality (23/78) or moderate quality (55/78), the latter due to lack of blinding of observers to group assignment and/or patient attrition because patients were extubated after operating room exit. Desflurane resulted in a 65% relative reduction in the incidence of prolonged extubation compared with sevoflurane (95% confidence interval 49% to 76%, P < .0001) and in a 78% relative reduction compared with isoflurane (58% to 89%, P = .0001). There were no significant associations between studies' relative risks and quality, industry funding, or year of publication (all six meta-regressions P ≥ .35). In conclusion, when emergence from general anesthesia with different drugs are compared with sevoflurane or isoflurane, suitable benchmarks quantifying rapidity of emergence are reductions in the incidence of prolonged extubation achieved by desflurane, approximately 65% and 78%, respectively. These estimates give realistic context for interpretation of results of future studies that compare new anesthetic agents to current anesthetics.

Exceedance Probabilities of Log-normal Distributions for One Group, Two Groups, and Meta-analysis of Multiple Two-group Studies, With Application to Analyses of Prolonged Times to Tracheal Extubation

Many randomized trials measure means and standard deviations of anesthesia recovery time (e.g., times to tracheal extubation). We show how to use generalized pivotal methods to compare the probabilities of exceeding a tolerance limit (e.g., > 15 min, prolonged times to tracheal extubation). The topic is important because the economic benefits of faster anesthesia emergence depend on reducing variability, not means, especially prevention of very long recovery times. Generalized pivotal methods are applied using computer simulation (e.g., using two Excel formulas for one group and three formulas for two group comparisons). The endpoint for each study with two groups is the ratio between groups of the probabilities of times exceeding a threshold or the ratio of the standard deviations. Confidence intervals and variances for the incremental risk ratio of the exceedance probabilities and for ratios of standard deviations are calculated using studies' sample sizes, sample means in the time scale of recovery times, and sample standard deviations in the time scale. Ratios are combined among studies using the DerSimonian-Laird estimate of the heterogeneity variance estimate, with Knapp-Hartung adjustment for the relatively small (N = 15) numbers of studies in the meta-analysis. We show larger absolute variability among studies' results when analyzed based on exceedance probabilities rather than standard deviations. Therefore, if an investigator's primary goal is to quantify reductions in the variability of recovery times (e.g., times until patients are ready for post-anesthesia care unit discharge), we recommend analyzing the standard deviations. When exceedance probabilities themselves are relevant, they can be analyzed from the original studies' summary measures.

Advanced endoscopic gastrointestinal techniques for the bariatric patient: implications for the anesthesia provider

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The incidence of obesity and the use of endoscopy have risen concurrently throughout the 21st century. Bariatric patients may present to the endoscopy suite for primary treatments as well as preoperatively and postoperatively from bariatric surgery. However, over the past 10 years, endoscopic bariatric and metabolic therapies (EBMTs) have emerged as viable alternatives to more invasive surgical approaches for weight loss.

RECENT FINDINGS

The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved several different gastric EBMTs including aspiration therapy, intragastric balloons, and endoscopic suturing. Other small intestine EBMTs including duodenal mucosal resurfacing, endoluminal magnetic partial jejunal diversion, and Duodenal-Jejunal Bypass Liner are not yet FDA approved, but are actively being investigated.

SUMMARY

Obesity causes anatomic and physiologic changes to every aspect of the human body. All EBMTs have specific nuances with important implications for the anesthesiologist. By considering both patient and procedural factors, the anesthesiologist will be able to perform a safe and effective anesthetic.

Effect of Body Mass Index on Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting: Propensity Analysis

The impact of body mass index (BMI) on postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) is controversial, and few studies have focused on their relationship. We investigated the effects of BMI on PONV, taking into account other PONV risk factors. We analyzed adults over the age of 18 years who received general anesthesia between 2015 and 2019, using propensity score matching. Before propensity score matching, odds ratios (ORs) for PONV were lower for overweight (OR, 0.91; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.87–0.96; p < 0.0001) or obese patients (OR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.71–0.84; p < 0.0001) than for normal-BMI patients. After matching, the ORs for PONV of overweight (OR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.80–0.98; p = 0.016) and obese patients (OR, 0.71; 95% CI, 0.63–0.79; p < 0.0001) were low. However, the ORs of underweight patients did not differ from those of normal-BMI patients, irrespective of matching. Therefore, the incidence of PONV may be lower among adults with a higher-than-normal BMI.