Parapheromones for Thynnine Wasps

Practical preparation of unsaturated very-long-chain fatty acids (VLCFAs) and very-long-chain alkene pollinator attractants

To prepare very-long-chain fatty acids and alkenes (VLCFAs and VLC alkenes) that are known pollinator attractants for sexually deceptive orchids, and biosynthetic precursors thereof, we applied a methodology allowing us to prepare monounsaturated VLCFAs with chain lengths up to 28 carbons and VLC alkenes up to 31 carbons. We implemented a coupling reaction between commercially available terminal alkynes and bromoalkanoic acids to prepare VLCFAs, allowing the products to be formed in two steps. For VLC alkenes, with many alkyltriphenylphosphonium bromides commercially available, we applied a Wittig reaction approach to prepare (Z)-configured monoenes in a single step. Using practical methods not requiring special reagents or equipment, we obtained 11 VLCFAs in > 90% isomeric purity, and 17 VLC alkenes in > 97% isomeric purity. Such general and accessible synthetic methods are essential for chemical ecology and biochemistry research to aid researchers in unambiguously identifying isolated semiochemicals and their precursors.

The volatile chemistry of orchid pollination

Covering: up to September 2022Orchids are renowned not only for their diversity of floral forms, but also for their many and often highly specialised pollination strategies. Volatile semiochemicals play a crucial role in the attraction of a wide variety of insect pollinators of orchids. The compounds produced by orchid flowers are as diverse as the pollinators they attract, and here we summarise some of the chemical diversity found across orchid taxa and pollination strategies. We focus on compounds that have been experimentally demonstrated to underpin pollinator attraction. We also highlight the structural elucidation and synthesis of a select subset of important orchid pollinator attractants, and discuss the ecological significance of the discoveries, the gaps in our current knowledge of orchid pollination chemistry, and some opportunities for future research in this field.

Sexual deception of a beetle pollinator through floral mimicry

Sexual mimicry is a complex multimodal strategy used by some plants to lure insects to flowers for pollination.^1-4 It is notable for being highly species-specific and is typically mediated by volatiles belonging to a restricted set of chemical compound classes.^3,4 Well-documented cases involve exploitation of bees and wasps (Hymenoptera)^5,6 and flies (Diptera).^7-9 Although beetles (Coleoptera) are the largest insect order and are well known as pollinators of both early and modern plants,^10,11 it has been unclear whether they are sexually deceived by plants during flower visits.^12,13 Here we report the discovery of an unambiguous case of sexual deception of a beetle: male longhorn beetles (Chorothyse hessei, Cerambycidae) pollinate the elaborate insectiform flowers of a rare southern African orchid (Disa forficaria), while exhibiting copulatory behavior including biting the antennae-like petals, curving the abdomen into the hairy lip cleft, and ejaculating sperm. The beetles are strongly attracted by (16S,9Z)-16-ethyl hexadec-9-enolide, a novel macrolide that we isolated from the floral scent. Structure-activity studies^14,15 confirmed that chirality and other aspects of the structural geometry of the macrolide are critical for the attraction of the male beetles. These results demonstrate a new biological function for plant macrolides and confirm that beetles can be exploited through sexual deception to serve as pollinators.

2-(Tetrahydrofuran-2-yl)acetic Acid and Ester Derivatives as Long-Range Pollinator Attractants in the Sexually Deceptive Orchid Cryptostylis ovata

Sexually deceptive orchids achieve pollination by luring male insects to flowers through chemical and sometimes visual mimicry of females. An extreme example of this deception occurs in Cryptostylis, one of only two genera where sexual deception is known to induce pollinator ejaculation. In the present study, bioassay-guided fractionations of Cryptostylis solvent extracts in combination with field bioassays were implemented to isolate and identify floral volatiles attractive to the pollinator Lissopimpla excelsa. ( S)-2-(Tetrahydrofuran-2-yl)acetic acid [( S)-1] and the ester derivatives methyl ( S)-2-(tetrahydrofuran-2-yl)acetate [( S)-2] and ethyl ( S)-2-(tetrahydrofuran-2-yl)acetate [( S)-3], all previously unknown semiochemicals, were confirmed to attract L. excelsa males in field bioassays. Chiral-phase GC and HPLC showed that the natural product 1 comprised a single enantiomer, its S-configuration being confirmed by synthesis of the two enantiomers from known enantiomers of tetrahydrofuran-2-carboxylic acid.

Identification of 2-Hydroxymethyl-3,6-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine as a Key Retronasal Burnt Flavor Compound in Soy Sauce Aroma Type Baijiu Using Sensory-Guided Isolation Assisted by Multivariate Data Analysis

The burnt flavor (overcooked rice flavor) is often retronasally perceived during the soy sauce aroma type Chinese Baijiu (Chinese distilled spirit) tasting and regarded as an important quality marker of the Baijiu. The sensory-guided isolation approach assisted by multivariate data analysis was applied to identify the compounds responsible for the retronasal burnt flavor in the Baijiu. Using two-dimensional offline high performance liquid chromatography separation and taste dilution analysis, a subfraction with the highest burnt flavor intensity was isolated from the Baijiu sample. In the subfraction, six potential flavor compounds were detected by ultra performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The most probable burnt flavor compound was screened by projection to latent structure regression analysis of the correlation between the potential compounds and their impact on burnt flavor. The target compound was identified as 2-hydroxymethyl-3,6-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine by means of high-resolution mass spectrometry and chemical synthesis. Sensory evaluation revealed a relatively low burnt flavor threshold of 2.89 μmol/L in 53% ethanol aqueous solution. On the basis of the dose-overthreshold factor and addition experiment, this compound was confirmed as the key contributor to the burnt flavor of soy sauce aroma type Baijiu.

An experimental evaluation of traits that influence the sexual behaviour of pollinators in sexually deceptive orchids

Pollination by sexual deception of male insects is perhaps one of the most remarkable cases of mimicry in the plant kingdom. However, understanding the influence of floral traits on pollinator behaviour in sexually deceptive plants is challenging, due to the risk of confounding changes in floral odour when manipulating morphology. Here, we investigated the floral traits influencing the sexual response of male Zaspilothynnus nigripes (Tiphiidae) wasps, a pollinator of two distantly related sexually deceptive orchids with contrasting floral architecture, Caladenia pectinata and Drakaea livida. In D. livida, the chemical sexual attractant is emitted from the labellum, whereas in C. pectinata, it is produced from the distal sepal tips, allowing manipulative experiments. When controlling for visual cues, there was no difference in long-distance attraction, although the floral odour of D. livida induced copulation more frequently than that of C. pectinata. The role of colour in pollinator sexual attraction was equivocal, indicating that colour may not be a strong constraint on the initial evolution of sexual deception. The frequency of wasp visitors landing on C. pectinata decreased when the amount of floral odour was reduced, but attempted copulation rates were enhanced when the source of floral odour was associated with the labellum. These latter variables may represent axes of selection that operate across many sexually deceptive species. Nonetheless, the observed variation in floral traits suggests flexibility among species in how sexual deception can be achieved.

Pollination by sexual deception-it takes chemistry to work

Semiochemicals are of paramount importance in sexually deceptive plants. These plants sexually lure specific male insects as pollinators by chemical and physical mimicry of the female of the pollinator. The strategy has evolved repeatedly in orchids, with a wide diversity of insect groups exploited. Chemical communication systems confirmed by field bioassays include: alkenes and alkanes in bee pollinated Ophrys species, keto-acid and hydroxy-acids in scoliid wasp pollinated O. speculum, and cyclohexanediones and pyrazines in thynnine wasp pollinated Chiloglottis and Drakaea orchids, respectively. In Ophrys, stearoyl-acyl carrier protein desaturase (SAD) enzymes have been confirmed to control species level variation in alkene double bond position. The production of cyclohexanediones in Chiloglottis unexpectedly depends on UVB light, a phenomenon unknown for other plant specialised metabolites. Potential biosynthetic pathways for other systems are explored, and alternative approaches to further accelerate chemical discovery in sexually deceptive plants are proposed.