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Oka SI, Sabry AD, Cawley KM, Warren JS. Multiple Levels of PGC-1α Dysregulation in Heart Failure. Front Cardiovasc Med 2020; 7:2. [PMID: 32083094 PMCID: PMC7002390 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2020.00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolic adaption is crucial for the heart to sustain its contractile activity under various physiological and pathological conditions. At the molecular level, the changes in energy demand impinge on the expression of genes encoding for metabolic enzymes. Among the major components of an intricate transcriptional circuitry, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1 alpha (PGC-1α) plays a critical role as a metabolic sensor, which is responsible for the fine-tuning of transcriptional responses to a plethora of stimuli. Cumulative evidence suggests that energetic impairment in heart failure is largely attributed to the dysregulation of PGC-1α. In this review, we summarize recent studies revealing how PGC-1α is regulated by a multitude of mechanisms, operating at different regulatory levels, which include epigenetic regulation, the expression of variants, post-transcriptional inhibition, and post-translational modifications. We further discuss how the PGC-1α regulatory cascade can be impaired in the failing heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-Ichi Oka
- Department of Cell Biology and Molecular Medicine, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, United States
| | - Amira D Sabry
- Nora Eccles Harrison Cardiovascular Research and Training Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Keiko M Cawley
- Nora Eccles Harrison Cardiovascular Research and Training Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
| | - Junco S Warren
- Nora Eccles Harrison Cardiovascular Research and Training Institute, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States.,Department of Internal Medicine, University of Utah School of Medicine, Salt Lake City, UT, United States.,Institute of Resource Development and Analysis, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto, Japan
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2
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Creus-Muncunill J, Ehrlich ME. Cell-Autonomous and Non-cell-Autonomous Pathogenic Mechanisms in Huntington's Disease: Insights from In Vitro and In Vivo Models. Neurotherapeutics 2019; 16:957-978. [PMID: 31529216 PMCID: PMC6985401 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-019-00782-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant disorder caused by an expansion in the trinucleotide CAG repeat in exon-1 in the huntingtin gene, located on chromosome 4. When the number of trinucleotide CAG exceeds 40 repeats, disease invariably is manifested, characterized by motor, cognitive, and psychiatric symptoms. The huntingtin (Htt) protein and its mutant form (mutant huntingtin, mHtt) are ubiquitously expressed but although multiple brain regions are affected, the most vulnerable brain region is the striatum. Striatal medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs) preferentially degenerate, followed by the cortical pyramidal neurons located in layers V and VI. Proposed HD pathogenic mechanisms include, but are not restricted to, excitotoxicity, neurotrophic support deficits, collapse of the protein degradation mechanisms, mitochondrial dysfunction, transcriptional alterations, and disorders of myelin. Studies performed in cell type-specific and regionally selective HD mouse models implicate both MSN cell-autonomous properties and cell-cell interactions, particularly corticostriatal but also with non-neuronal cell types. Here, we review the intrinsic properties of MSNs that contribute to their selective vulnerability and in addition, we discuss how astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes, together with aberrant corticostriatal connectivity, contribute to HD pathophysiology. In addition, mHtt causes cell-autonomous dysfunction in cell types other than MSNs. These findings have implications in terms of therapeutic strategies aimed at preventing neuronal dysfunction and degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Creus-Muncunill
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1468 Madison Avenue, New York, NY, 10029, USA
| | - Michelle E Ehrlich
- Department of Neurology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, 1468 Madison Avenue, New York, NY, 10029, USA.
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Ehrnhoefer DE, Southwell AL, Sivasubramanian M, Qiu X, Villanueva EB, Xie Y, Waltl S, Anderson L, Fazeli A, Casal L, Felczak B, Tsang M, Hayden MR. HACE1 is essential for astrocyte mitochondrial function and influences Huntington disease phenotypes in vivo. Hum Mol Genet 2018; 27:239-253. [PMID: 29121340 PMCID: PMC5886116 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddx394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 10/28/2017] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress is a prominent feature of Huntington disease (HD), and we have shown previously that reduced levels of hace1 (HECT domain and Ankyrin repeat containing E3 ubiquitin protein ligase 1) in patient striatum may contribute to the pathogenesis of HD. Hace1 promotes the stability of Nrf2 and thus plays an important role in antioxidant response mechanisms, which are dysfunctional in HD. Moreover, hace1 overexpression mitigates mutant huntingtin (mHTT)-induced oxidative stress in vitro through promotion of the Nrf2 antioxidant response. Here, we show that the genetic ablation of hace1 in the YAC128 mouse model of HD accelerates motor deficits and exacerbates cognitive and psychiatric phenotypes in vivo. We find that both the expression of mHTT and the ablation of hace1 alone are sufficient to cause deficits in astrocytic mitochondrial respiration. We confirm the crucial role of hace1 in astrocytes in vivo, since its ablation is sufficient to cause dramatic astrogliosis in wild-type FVB/N mice. Astrogliosis is not observed in the presence of mHTT but a strong dysregulation in the expression of astrocytic markers in HACE1-/- x YAC128 striatum suggests an additive effect of mHTT expression and hace1 loss on this cell type. HACE1-/- x YAC128 mice and primary cells derived from these animals therefore provide model systems that will allow for the further dissection of Nrf2 pathways and astrocyte dysfunction in the context of HD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dagmar E Ehrnhoefer
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Amber L Southwell
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Meenalochani Sivasubramanian
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Xiaofan Qiu
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Erika B Villanueva
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Yuanyun Xie
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Sabine Waltl
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Lisa Anderson
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Anita Fazeli
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Lorenzo Casal
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Boguslaw Felczak
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Michelle Tsang
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
| | - Michael R Hayden
- Department of Medical Genetics, Centre for Molecular Medicine and Therapeutics (CMMT), CFRI, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 4H4, Canada
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Carmo C, Naia L, Lopes C, Rego AC. Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Huntington’s Disease. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1049:59-83. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-71779-1_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Chandra G, Shenoi RA, Anand R, Rajamma U, Mohanakumar KP. Reinforcing mitochondrial functions in aging brain: An insight into Parkinson's disease therapeutics. J Chem Neuroanat 2017; 95:29-42. [PMID: 29269015 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2017.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2017] [Revised: 12/16/2017] [Accepted: 12/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria, the powerhouse of the neural cells in the brain, are also the seat of certain essential gene signaling pathways that control neuronal functions. Deterioration of mitochondrial functions has been widely reported in normal aging as well as in a spectrum of age-associated neurological diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD). Evidences accumulated in the recent past provide not only advanced information on the causes of mitochondrial bioenergetics defects and redox imbalance in PD brains, but also much insight into mitochondrial biogenesis, quality control of mitochondrial proteins, and genes, which regulate intra- and extra-mitochondrial signaling that control the general health of neural cells. The mitochondrial quality control machinery is affected in aging and especially in PD, thus affecting intraneuronal protein transport and degradation, which are primarily responsible for accumulation of misfolded proteins and mitochondrial damage in sporadic as well as familial PD. Essentially we considered in the first half of this review, mitochondria-based targets such as mitochondrial oxidative stress and mitochondrial quality control pathways in PD, relevance of mitochondrial DNA mutations, mitophagy, mitochondrial proteases, mitochondrial flux, and finally mitochondria-based therapies possible for PD. Therapeutic aspects are considered in the later half and mitochondria-targeted antioxidant therapy, mitophagy enhancers, mitochondrial biogenesis boasters, mitochondrial dynamics modulators, and gene-based therapeutic approaches are discussed. The present review is a critical assessment of this information to distinguish some exemplary mitochondrial therapeutic targets, and provides a utilitarian perception of some avenues for therapeutic designs on identified mitochondrial targets for PD, a very incapacitating disorder of the geriatric population, world over.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Chandra
- Inter University Centre for Biomedical Research & Super Speciality Hospital, Mahatma Gandhi University Campus at Thalappady, Rubber Board P.O., Kottayam, Kerala - 686009, India.
| | - R A Shenoi
- Inter University Centre for Biomedical Research & Super Speciality Hospital, Mahatma Gandhi University Campus at Thalappady, Rubber Board P.O., Kottayam, Kerala - 686009, India
| | - R Anand
- Inter University Centre for Biomedical Research & Super Speciality Hospital, Mahatma Gandhi University Campus at Thalappady, Rubber Board P.O., Kottayam, Kerala - 686009, India
| | - U Rajamma
- Inter University Centre for Biomedical Research & Super Speciality Hospital, Mahatma Gandhi University Campus at Thalappady, Rubber Board P.O., Kottayam, Kerala - 686009, India
| | - K P Mohanakumar
- Inter University Centre for Biomedical Research & Super Speciality Hospital, Mahatma Gandhi University Campus at Thalappady, Rubber Board P.O., Kottayam, Kerala - 686009, India
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Lokhande S, Patra BN, Ray A. A link between chromatin condensation mechanisms and Huntington's disease: connecting the dots. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2016; 12:3515-3529. [PMID: 27714015 DOI: 10.1039/c6mb00598e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Huntington's disease is a rare neurodegenerative disorder whose complex pathophysiology exhibits system-wide changes in the body, with striking and debilitating clinical features targeting the central nervous system. Among the various molecular functions affected in this disease, mitochondrial dysfunction and transcriptional dysregulation are some of the most studied aspects of this disease. However, there is evidence of the involvement of a mutant Huntingtin protein in the processes of DNA damage, chromosome condensation and DNA repair. This review attempts to briefly recapitulate the clinical features, model systems used to study the disease, major molecular processes affected, and, more importantly, examines recent evidence for the involvement of the mutant Huntingtin protein in the processes regulating chromosome condensation, leading to DNA damage response and neuronal death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonali Lokhande
- Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences, Claremont, CA 91711, USA.
| | - Biranchi N Patra
- Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences, Claremont, CA 91711, USA.
| | - Animesh Ray
- Keck Graduate Institute of Applied Life Sciences, Claremont, CA 91711, USA.
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Karachitos A, Grobys D, Kulczyńska K, Sobusiak A, Kmita H. The Association of VDAC with Cell Viability of PC12 Model of Huntington's Disease. Front Oncol 2016; 6:238. [PMID: 27891320 PMCID: PMC5104952 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2016.00238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It is becoming increasingly apparent that mitochondria dysfunction plays an important role in the pathogenesis of Huntington’s disease (HD), but the underlying mechanism is still elusive. Thus, there is a still need for further studies concerning the upstream events in the mitochondria dysfunction that could contribute to cell death observed in HD. Taking into account the fundamental role of the voltage-dependent anion-selective channel (VDAC) in mitochondria functioning, it is reasonable to consider the channel as a crucial element in HD etiology. Therefore, we applied inducible PC12 cell model of HD to determine the relationship between the effect of expression of wild type and mutant huntingtin (Htt and mHtt, respectively) on cell survival and mitochondria functioning in intact cells under conditions of undergoing cell divisions. Because after 48 h of Htt and mHtt expression differences in mitochondria functioning co-occurred with differences in the cell viability, we decided to estimate the effect of Htt and mHtt expression lasted for 48 h on VDAC functioning. Therefore, we isolated VDAC from the cells and tested the preparations by black lipid membrane system. We observed that the expression of mHtt, but not Htt, resulted in changes of the open state conductance and voltage-dependence when compared to control cells cultured in the absence of the expression. Importantly, for all the VDAC preparations, we observed a dominant quantitative content of VDAC1, and the quantitative relationships between VDAC isoforms were not changed by Htt and mHtt expression. Thus, Htt and mHtt-mediated functional changes of VDAC, being predominantly VDAC1, which occur shortly after these protein appearances in cells, may result in differences concerning mitochondria functioning and viability of cells expressing Htt and mHtt. The assumption is important for better understanding of cytotoxicity as well as cytoprotection mechanisms of potential clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andonis Karachitos
- Laboratory of Bioenergetics, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań , Poznań , Poland
| | - Daria Grobys
- Laboratory of Bioenergetics, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań , Poznań , Poland
| | - Klaudia Kulczyńska
- Laboratory of Bioenergetics, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań , Poznań , Poland
| | - Adrian Sobusiak
- Laboratory of Bioenergetics, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań , Poznań , Poland
| | - Hanna Kmita
- Laboratory of Bioenergetics, Faculty of Biology, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań , Poznań , Poland
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Trehalose rescues glial cell dysfunction in striatal cultures from HD R6/1 mice at early postnatal development. Mol Cell Neurosci 2016; 74:128-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2016.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2015] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 05/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
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Filadi R, Greotti E, Turacchio G, Luini A, Pozzan T, Pizzo P. Presenilin 2 Modulates Endoplasmic Reticulum-Mitochondria Coupling by Tuning the Antagonistic Effect of Mitofusin 2. Cell Rep 2016; 15:2226-2238. [PMID: 27239030 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2015] [Revised: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Communication between organelles plays key roles in cell biology. In particular, physical and functional coupling of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and mitochondria is crucial for regulation of various physiological and pathophysiological processes. Here, we demonstrate that Presenilin 2 (PS2), mutations in which underlie familial Alzheimer's disease (FAD), promotes ER-mitochondria coupling only in the presence of mitofusin 2 (Mfn2). PS2 is not necessary for the antagonistic effect of Mfn2 on organelle coupling, although its abundance can tune it. The two proteins physically interact, whereas their homologues Mfn1 and PS1 are dispensable for this interplay. Moreover, PS2 mutants associated with FAD are more effective than the wild-type form in modulating ER-mitochondria tethering because their binding to Mfn2 in mitochondria-associated membranes is favored. We propose a revised model for ER-mitochondria interaction to account for these findings and discuss possible implications for FAD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Filadi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, via U. Bassi 58/B, Padua 35131, Italy
| | - Elisa Greotti
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, via U. Bassi 58/B, Padua 35131, Italy; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Neuroscience, Italian National Research Council (CNR), via U. Bassi 58/B, Padua 35131, Italy
| | - Gabriele Turacchio
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Protein Biochemistry, Italian National Research Council (CNR), via P. Castellino 111, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Alberto Luini
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Protein Biochemistry, Italian National Research Council (CNR), via P. Castellino 111, Naples 80131, Italy
| | - Tullio Pozzan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, via U. Bassi 58/B, Padua 35131, Italy; Venetian Institute of Molecular Medicine, via Orus 2, Padua 35131, Italy; Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Neuroscience, Italian National Research Council (CNR), via U. Bassi 58/B, Padua 35131, Italy
| | - Paola Pizzo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padua, via U. Bassi 58/B, Padua 35131, Italy.
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Sarto-Jackson I, Tomaska L. How to bake a brain: yeast as a model neuron. Curr Genet 2016; 62:347-70. [PMID: 26782173 DOI: 10.1007/s00294-015-0554-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2015] [Revised: 12/09/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
More than 30 years ago Dan Koshland published an inspirational essay presenting the bacterium as a model neuron (Koshland, Trends Neurosci 6:133-137, 1983). In the article he argued that there are several similarities between neurons and bacterial cells in "how signals are processed within a cell or how this processing machinery can be modified to produce plasticity". He then explored the bacterial chemosensory system to emphasize its attributes that are analogous to information processing in neurons. In this review, we wish to expand Koshland's original idea by adding the yeast cell to the list of useful models of a neuron. The fact that yeasts and neurons are specialized versions of the eukaryotic cell sharing all principal components sets the stage for a grand evolutionary tinkering where these components are employed in qualitatively different tasks, but following analogous molecular logic. By way of example, we argue that evolutionarily conserved key components involved in polarization processes (from budding or mating in Saccharomyces cervisiae to neurite outgrowth or spinogenesis in neurons) are shared between yeast and neurons. This orthologous conservation of modules makes S. cervisiae an excellent model organism to investigate neurobiological questions. We substantiate this claim by providing examples of yeast models used for studying neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Sarto-Jackson
- Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research, Martinstraße 12, 3400, Klosterneuburg, Austria.
| | - Lubomir Tomaska
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynska dolina B-1, Ilkovicova 6, 842 15, Bratislava, Slovak Republic.
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Chakraborty J, Rajamma U, Jana N, Mohanakumar K. Quercetin improves the activity of the ubiquitin-proteasomal system in 150Q mutated huntingtin-expressing cells but exerts detrimental effects on neuronal survivability. J Neurosci Res 2015; 93:1581-91. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2015] [Accepted: 06/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. Chakraborty
- Division of Cell Biology and Physiology; Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Neuroscience, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology; Kolkata India
| | - U. Rajamma
- Manovikas Biomedical Research and Diagnostic Centre; Kolkata India
| | - N. Jana
- National Brain Research Centre; Gurgaon Haryana India
| | - K.P. Mohanakumar
- Division of Cell Biology and Physiology; Laboratory of Clinical and Experimental Neuroscience, CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Biology; Kolkata India
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Chakraborty J, Pandey M, Navneet A, Appukuttan T, Varghese M, Sreetama S, Rajamma U, Mohanakumar K. Profilin-2 increased expression and its altered interaction with β-actin in the striatum of 3-nitropropionic acid-induced Huntington’s disease in rats. Neuroscience 2014; 281:216-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.09.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2013] [Revised: 09/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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