The effect of Crocin on TFAM and PGC-1α expression and Catalase and Superoxide dismutase activities following cholestasis-induced neuroinflammation in the striatum of male Wistar rats

Crocin (bioactive compound of Crocus sativus L.) potently restores REM sleep deprivation-induced manic- and obsessive-compulsive-like behaviors in female rats

Rapid-eye movement (REM) sleep deprivation (SD) can induce manic-like behaviors including hyperlocomotion. On the other hand, crocin (one of the main compounds of Crocus sativus L. or Saffron) may be beneficial in the improvement of mental and cognitive dysfunctions. Also, crocin can restore the deleterious effects of SD on mental and cognitive processes. In this study, we investigated the effect of REM SD on female rats' behaviors including depression- and anxiety-like behaviors, locomotion, pain perception, and obsessive-compulsive-like behavior, and also, the potential effect of crocin on REM SD effects. We used female rats because evidence on the role of REM SD in modulating psychological and behavioral functions of female (but not male) rats is limited. REM SD was induced for 14 days (6h/day), and crocin (25, 50, and 75 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally. Open field test, forced swim test, hot plate test, and marble burying test were used to assess rats' behaviors. The results showed REM SD-induced manic-like behavior (hyperlocomotion). Also, REM SD rats showed decreased anxiety- and depression-like behavior, pain subthreshold (the duration it takes for the rat to feel pain), and showed obsessive compulsive-like behavior. However, crocin at all doses partially or fully reversed REM SD-induced behavioral changes. In conclusion, our results suggested the possible comorbidity of OCD and REM SD-induced manic-like behavior in female rats or the potential role of REM SD in the etiology of OCD, although more studies are needed. In contrast, crocin can be a possible therapeutic choice for decreasing manic-like behaviors.

Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-mitophagy effects of trans sodium crocetinate on experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in BALB/C57 mice

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the degeneration of myelin and inflammation in the central nervous system. Trans sodium crocetinate (TSC), a novel synthetic carotenoid compound, possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effects of TSC against the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a well-established model for MS. Female BALB/C57 mice were divided into different groups, including control, EAE, vehicle, TSC-treated (25, 50, and 100 mg/kg, administered via gavage) + EAE, methyl prednisone acetate + EAE, and TSC-treated (100 mg/kg, administered via gavage for 28 days) groups. EAE was induced using MOG35-55, complete Freund's adjuvant, and pertussis toxin. In the mice spinal cord tissues, the oxidative markers (GSH and MDA) were measured using spectrophotometry and histological evaluation was performed. Mitophagic pathway proteins (PINK1and PARKIN) and inflammatory factors (IL-1β and TNF-α) were evaluated by western blot. Following 21 days post-induction, EAE mice exhibited weight loss, and the paralysis scores increased on day 13 but recovered after TSC (100 mg/kg) administration on day 16. Furthermore, TSC (50 and 100 mg/kg) reversed the altered levels of MDA and GSH in the spinal cord tissue of EAE mice. TSC (100 mg/kg) also decreased microgliosis, demyelination, and the levels of inflammatory markers IL-1β and TNF-α. Notably, TSC (100 mg/kg) modulated the mitophagy pathway by reducing PINK1 and Parkin protein levels. These findings demonstrate that TSC protects spinal cord tissue against EAE-induced MS through anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-mitophagy mechanisms.

The effect of crocin on cholestasis-induced spatial memory impairment with respect to the expression level of TFAM and PGC-1α and activity of catalase and superoxide dismutase in the hippocampus

Large evidence has shown that cholestasis has a wide-range of deleterious effects on brain function, and also, on neurocognitive functions including learning and memory. On the other hand, crocin (derived from Crocus sativus) is a medicinal natural compound that induces neuroprotective and precognitive effects. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of crocin on spatial learning and memory in cholestatic rats with respect to the level of mitochondrial transcriptional factor A (TFAM), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), catalase (CAT), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the hippocampus of male Wistar rats. Bile duct ligation (BDL) was used to induce cholestasis. Y-maze apparatus was used to assess spatial memory performance and real-time PCR was used to assess TFAM and PGC-1α gene expression. Also, crocin was injected intraperitoneal at the doses of 15, 20, and 30 mg/kg for thirty days. The results showed that BDL impaired spatial memory in rats. BDL also decreased SOD, TFAM, and PGC-1α level. In addition, crocin partially reversed the impairment effect of BDL on spatial memory. Crocin (30 mg/kg) also reversed the effect of BDL on SOD, TFAM, and PGC-1α. Of note, the effect of BDL on CAT activity was controversial. It seems that BDL can increase CAT activity. In addition, crocin (30 mg/kg) reversed the enhancement of CAT following BDL to its control level. In conclusion, crocin may induce a significant neuroprotective effect on cholestasis-induced memory impairment.

Saffron extract attenuates Sofosbuvir-induced retinal neurodegeneration in albino rat

Sofosbuvir is a novel drug candidate for the treatment of hepatitis C viral infection; however, vision loss is one of its growing adverse effects. Saffron is a natural biomolecule with a high antioxidant potential that has been efficiently used in some diseases caused by oxidative stress. This study evaluated Sofosbuvir's neurodegenerative effect on the retina of albino rat and examined the potential protective role of saffron aqueous extract. Twenty-one adult male albino rats were randomly divided into three groups: Control, Sofosbuvir-treated (41.1 mg/kg /day for 6 weeks), and Sofosbuvir + Saffron co-treated groups. Retinal specimens were biochemically analyzed for malondialdehyde (MDA), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels. In addition, light and transmission electron microscopic examination, as well as immunohistochemical staining for Caspase-3, COX-2, and GFAP were performed. Sofosbuvir treatment caused a significant increase in retinal MDA, IL-6, and TNF-α levels coupling with a significant decrease in retinal total antioxidant capacity level. Histopathological findings revealed disturbed retinal architecture, detached pigment epithelium, vacuolated photoreceptors, in addition to a significant decrease in the thicknesses of both outer and inner nuclear layers, and the number of ganglionic cells. Ultrastructural examination revealed extensive degenerative changes in all retinal layers. Caspase-3, COX-2, and GFAP immunohistochemical expressions were significantly increased. Meanwhile, concomitant treatment with Saffron significantly improved retinal redox status, inflammation, histological, and ultrastructural parameters. Saffron may protect the retina from the hazardous effects of Sofosbuvir. Saffron could be used as an adjuvant therapy to protect patients receiving Sofosbuvir from retinal damage.

Crocins for Ischemic Stroke: A Review of Current Evidence

Crocins (CRs) and the related active constituents derived from Crocus sativus L. (Saffron) have demonstrated protective effects against cerebral ischemia and ischemic stroke, with various bioactivities including neuroprotection, anti-neuroinflammation, antioxidant, and cardiovascular protection. Among CRs, crocin (CR) has been shown to act on multiple mechanisms and signaling pathways involved in ischemic stroke, including mitochondrial apoptosis, nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of B cells pathway, S100 calcium-binding protein B, interleukin-6 and vascular endothelial growth factor-A. CR is generally safe and well-tolerated. Pharmacokinetic studies indicate that CR has poor bioavailability and needs to convert to crocetin (CC) in order to cross the blood-brain barrier. Clinical studies have shown the efficacy of saffron and CR in treating various conditions, including metabolic syndrome, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and coronary artery disease. There is evidence supporting CR as a treatment for ischemic stroke, although further studies are needed to confirm their efficacy and safety in clinical settings.

The Role of Mitochondrial Quality Control in Cognitive Dysfunction in Diabetes

Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) is a well known risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease. Mitochondria are the center of intracellular energy metabolism and the main source of reactive oxygen species. Mitochondrial dysfunction has been identified as a key factor in diabetes-associated brain alterations contributing to neurodegenerative events. Defective insulin signaling may act in concert with neurodegenerative mechanisms leading to abnormalities in mitochondrial structure and function. Mitochondrial dysfunction triggers neuronal energy exhaustion and oxidative stress, leading to brain neuronal damage and cognitive impairment. The normality of mitochondrial function is basically maintained by mitochondrial quality control mechanisms. In T2DM, defects in the mitochondrial quality control pathway in the brain have been found to lead to mitochondrial dysfunction and cognitive impairment. Here, we discuss the association of mitochondrial dysfunction with T2DM and cognitive impairment. We also review the molecular mechanisms of mitochondrial quality control and impacts of mitochondrial quality control on the progression of cognitive impairment in T2DM.